Dangers in tourism, imaginary and valid
Accident in a tourist hike... What its(his) reasons, its(his) nature? Whether it is possible to provide, warn it(him)? It is told about all this in the book. It(she) contains data on experience of a safety, practical recommendations on selection in group, to training and education of tourists, examples of overcoming of dangerous situations on routes, analyses of circumstances of accidents in travel. The book will be useful to workers of tourism, an active tourist sektsy and the маршрутно-qualifying commissions, to the broad audience of sportsmen, fans(amateurs) of travel and regional specialists.Jury Aleksandrovich Shtjurmer
DANGERS IN TOURISM, IMAGINARY AND VALID
(Problems of preventive maintenance of a traumatism on tourist travel).
Moscow, " Physical culture and sports ", 1972.
Accident in a tourist hike... What its(his) reasons, its(his) nature? Whether it is possible to provide, warn it(him)? It is told about all this in the book. It(she) contains data on experience of a safety, practical recommendations on selection in group, to training and education of tourists, examples of overcoming of dangerous situations on routes, analyses of circumstances of accidents in travel. The book will be useful to workers of tourism, an active tourist sektsy and the маршрутно-qualifying commissions, to the broad audience of sportsmen, fans(amateurs) of travel and regional specialists.
ABOUT THIS BOOK
Problem of a safety of travel - one of the most important (if not the most important!) and at the same time one of the challenges of tourist movement. At a hike always there is an element of chance, and eliminate(erase;remove) it(him) we cannot, as we can not eliminate(erase;remove) in general accident from our life. However, if is useless to put to itself a problem(task) to eliminate(erase;remove) any accident, to aspire to reduce it(her) to a minimum quite probably.
Unfortunately, we just approach(suit) to development of a complex of the measures providing safety of travel. The experience which has been saved up(which has been saved) in the past, has more likely negative character. Misunderstanding of the nature of accident led sometimes to hasty and unreasoned conclusions. At all for memories time when, having convinced, that bezavarijnost in hikes in the absolute is unattainable, was accepted decision in general to forbid a little complex(difficult) tourist hikes. Therefore searches of concrete ways in the sanction of a problem of safety in tourism should lean(base) on the scrupulous analysis of emergency cases, on gathering of a statistical material.
The book of the master of sports of J.A.Shtjurmera " Dangers in tourism, imaginary and valid " - the first serious attempt of the regular analysis of data available for today about the reasons of accidents on tourist travel.
Till now all publications on this theme were located only in periodicals (besides very seldom) and were limited, as a rule, to the morally-ethical party(side) of separate cases. Journalistic hlestkost similar clauses(articles) sometimes was inversely proportional to their business, practical value. Such level of the information and furthermore the generalization necessary for those or other practical conclusions, certainly, it is insufficient and mismatches the social importance of a problem. J.A.Shtjurmera's book is called to fill, to be exact, to begin(start) filling of this blank in the sports literature.
In essence, J.A.Shtjurmera's book pawns bases of systematic work above creation and carrying out during a life of system of the actions directed on a safety of tourist hikes in specific conditions of our country. The last especially is to be emphasized, for experience of saving services well acting the West - such as "Bergrettungsdinst" in Austria or "Bergvaht" in Germany, - it is not transferable(tolerable) on our ground. In the West the tourism connected with active ways of movement, is in a complex concentrated in very local areas in view of what the organization of saving service is under construction. In conditions of huge spaces of our country we cannot copy system used there.
In J.A.Shtjurmer's book considers(examines) the positive experience of a safety saved up(saved) at us (work of consulting items(points) and the routing commissions, purpose(assignment;destination) of control items(points) and terms, etc.), plans possible(probable) ways of improvement and brings to a focus to knowledge of principles of occurrence of danger each head of a hike, each tourist.
Doubtless success of the author - analysis of a question on a causal role of a route. During two tens years of existence of sports classification in tourism repeatedly, under influence of emotional reaction of some heads of tourist bodies on last accident, there were unreasonable "interdictions" of this or that area. J.A.Shtjurmer has convincingly shown, for example, that was(former) for many years some kind of pugalom Kola peninsula on sad consequences many times over concedes to traditional Caucasus though travel on the last always caused the most complacent attitude(relation).
The same it is possible to tell and about value of equipment. References(links) to its(his) insufficient quantity(amount) and unsatisfactory quality are widely widespread and for many workers of tourism replace practical preparation of the tourist staff and the organization of travel. At the same time actually it is not known any accident which would be obvious and it is unequivocally caused by equipment, and the set of the cases caused by inability to address with it(him), on the contrary, is known.
These two questions are allocated by us because J.A.Shtjurmer for the first time has put them in such plane and has convincingly proved the position. But also other substantive provisions of the book are not less indisputable, as are based on actual facts and on extensive long-term experience which is saved up(collected) by the маршрутно-qualifying commissions, is saved up(collected), but not generalized and the more so is not published for the wide reader.
J.A.Shtjurmera's book will have the greatest value for those who enters the big tourism and wishes to be engaged in it(him) seriously. Having already sufficient opportunities for a choice and development of a route (the literature on the basic areas, reports on travel, system of consultations, the mutual information), these people collide(face) with absence of the modern literature on radical questions of a safety of travel which would help(assist) them to develop(produce) correct principles of own behaviour in tourism. The great value of the book is obvious to the маршрутно-qualifying commissions. And, at last, the book will be useful and interesting to the broad audience of readers-tourists the complex approach to a question, concreteness of the resulted(brought) facts and examples, at last, affinity noted and analysed by the author to own experiences and impressions.
Century Tikhomirov, the master of sports of the USSR on tourism, chairman of the Central маршрутно-qualifying commission.
K.Bardin, the master of sports of the USSR on tourism, a member of the Central маршрутно-qualifying commission.
FROM THE AUTHOR
What is the traumas in general and what damage suffers(bears) from them mankind, it is easy(light) to present itself if to recollect, that a traumatism as a result of accidents in all parts of a planet - now one of the main reasons of death of people. For of some economically developed states the destruction from traumas in some times surpasses death rate from all infectious and many other things of illnesses together taken. Only as a result of road and transport incidents in the world about 200 thousand person annually perishes, that, according to one English researcher, is equivalent to " a constant condition of war of average scale ".
Brings the sad mite in a traumatism and tourism. In France and Japan, for example, on mountain routes perishes more than on 100 person in a year, in the Alpes annually bury 300 - 400 climbers and mountain tourists. Even more victims give incident with travellers on water. Certainly, from the basic kinds of accidents - on manufacture, in a life, on transport - sports traumas (namely to them usually carry traumas on tourist routes) make, according to the Central institute of traumatology and orthopedy, only 2 - 3 % from their total. It is much less and absolute quantity(amount) of accidents in our tourism in comparison with a number(line) of the western countries. However similar comparison should not calm: foreign parameters cannot be in this question the standard, and, as is known, another's illness does not treat own...
In the Soviet state struggle against accidents - not simply humane appeal, and natural consequence(investigation) of main principles of a society, where the main value - the person. In bases of the legislation on public health services of the USSR the duty(debt) of the citizen is specially stipulated - carefully to concern to the health and health of associates. Therefore happens annoyingly when instead of improvement tourism by the some brings diseases, instead of sports perfection - stretchings, crises, burns, obmorozhenija. Certainly, such the unconditional minority, and their share in the general(common) mullions-strong weight of tourists in connection with increase of skill of travellers, improvement of equipment, accumulation of experience from year to year decreases. But it is impossible to forget and about extraordinary intensive growth of number of those who joins, annually army of travellers, joins, probably, even without necessary experience and skills, without knowledge of dangers which can wait for the person on a route, without skill successfully avoid or overcome them.
To help(assist) with a safety of such people - the purpose of the given book. At the same time let the reader does not search in it(her) for the concrete description of all dangers on a tourist route, does not try to find instructions on rescue rolling(drowning) or to first-aid treatment bitten by an adder. Below questions of preventive maintenance of a tourist traumatism, and in them most a general view are mentioned(touched) only.
The author realizes, that its(his) conclusions, probably, will demand in something revision, and the concept - specification and development. On tourist tracks this lack speaks a modern level of our knowledge of the nature and sources of accidents by absence of the account of all "state of emergency" (especially easy(light) and average weight) both in conditions of tourist hikes, and at carrying out of leisure by the person in general. Unfortunately, many people are inclined to consider(count) time of rest only as personal time, and the misfortune which has happened at it(these), - exclusively the private affair. From here and small knowledge of the organizations which could arrange against recurrence of undesirable incidents.
At absence of the literature concerning preventive maintenance of a tourist traumatism the author tried to find the decision of the put problem in attraction of data from other fields of knowledge and disciplines - recreational geografy, the safety precautions, social traumatology, psychophysiology. Other productive way was made with studying and generalization of circumstances of known accidents for the tourist organizations for last 5 years (from them traumas on tourist tracks for 1968 - 1969 were especially in detail analyzed).
The greatest role in creation of this book the collective experience which has been saved up(which has been saved) by tourists - members of public контрольно-saving groups and the tourist маршрутно-qualifying commissions, with whom the author could work many years in close contact and to whom it(he) expresses the deep gratitude for the given materials and the stated ideas has played.
STATEMENT OF THE QUESTION
Accident in tourism...
What is such? Time a case it is possible to assume that is a question of event or the phenomenon casual, unexpected. Has fallen, for example, on ski descent(release) one of tourists and has was traumatized. For the victim it has occured(happened) unexpectedly: it(he) was not ready to falling, did not expect painful(unhealthy) result and harm (from its(his) point of view) has been caused to it(him) casually. Such falling and a trauma could be presented the extraneous observer, on the contrary, as natural consequence(investigation) of inability of the person to use mountain-skiing technics(technical equipment) or consequence(investigation) of an excessive steepness of a slope.
Means, at all external unexpectedness of accidents it is impossible to approve(confirm), that they cannot be expected. Means, the unexpectedness of accident is in the certain measure an estimation subjective, reflecting the point of view of "interested person".
The second feature of accident - its(his) unintentioalness and netseleosoznannost. Without this quality it(he) ceases to be "case", and passes in a category of the deliberate and in advance planned actions directed on causing of harm by another or. Absence tseleosoznannosti erroneous actions is not meant, however, that by those on which fault(wine) there was a sad incident, does not bear(carry) the responsibility for the act.
Definition "unfortunate" opens the third feature of event: it has brought a trouble, misfortune for health of the person. Therefore it is impossible to carry so-called dangerous situations which have not caused harm to health of tourists to accidents, for example safe revolution of a kayak on porozhistom a site of the river. The term " tourist failure(accident) " as it(he) reflects not a traumatism of people, and damage of a vessel, the machine(car), in general a mechanical part or equipment and the losses connected with it(this) is unjustified, apparently, and received the certain distribution as a synonym of accident, that on tourist travel usually is not defining(determining).
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Small and helpless people in an ice empire East Sajana seem. The terrible falls just about will bury them in deaf(indistinct) gorge. But... It is danger imaginary: the frozen cascades of water only a fine natural phenomenon for the sake of which it is necessary to argue and with the valid difficulties of a winter route. A photo.
Harm to health of the tourist can be caused various by: impact of a stone, a sting of an animal, hit of water in respiratory ways, therefore traumas, as a rule, occur(happen) at dangerous influence of an environment. For marching conditions it is necessary to carry to the category of accidents sometimes and internal disease processes in an organism - heart attack, a sharp attack appenditsita, an attack epilepsii when damage of an organism occurs(happens) rapidly, and event is short-term. At the same time the damages of an organism connected with long influence of adverse factors, follows, possibly to consider(count) as original tourist "professional" diseases.
By analogy it is possible to carry many to the last from resulted(brought) below endurance(quotation) from " the List of some professional vrednostej and occupational diseases on land works " *.
Character vrednostej, processes at which harm arise
Occupational diseases
Adverse meteorological and an environment at field works
prostudnye diseases, rheumatism
Influence of a wrong mode of day and a feed(meal) at field works
Gastritises, stomach ulcer
Change of atmospheric pressure at works in high-mountainous areas
Infringement of intimate activity and breath, mountain illness
Influence of bright light exposure at presence of a snow cover in the North and in mountains, at works in deserts, on the rivers and lakes
Inflammatory diseases of eyes
Influence of blood-sicking insects at field works and timber cuttings
Kleshchevoj entsefalit, fevers
Heavy physical pressure(voltage) and the compelled(forced) position of a trunk.
Occur(Happen) at movement and rise of weights at absence of mechanization during field works and woods are shaky
Curvature of a backbone, disease of heart and vessels, ploskostopie, expansion of veins, a hernia
* A.Minaev, N.I.Shatko. The Safety precautions on land works., 1962.
And at last, about distribution of concept of accident on various kinds of tourism. Possibly, incorrectly all the sad incidents connected from injured people during travel to carry to "tourist" accidents. In fact under the tourist, by encyclopaedic definition, it is possible to understand any, travelling " from inquisitiveness or with the purpose of rest and entertainment ", and on modern foreign concepts in general everyone who temporarily and has voluntary changed a residence not with the purpose of earnings. To assort their traumatism as it is unpromising how to estimate(appreciate), for example, an industrial traumatism of hairdressers(barbers) on that, how many from them it is brought down by motor vehicles in streets, has hurted at falling on a skating rink(roll) or has poisoned with the spoiled canned food. To carry accident to tourism, possibly, fairly only when it is a question of an active part of the tourism entering level with gymnastics, track and field athletics and other kinds of sports in uniform system of physical training. And the traumas received in other forms of tourism, should be considered as received in a life or on transport.
Allocating travel with active ways the movement made within the limits of requirements of All-Union sports classification, it is possible to note, as in them the traumatism has often the sources accidents, proisshedshie in conditions far from sports (for example, a burn a flame of a fire at cooking, a brain concussion as a result of accident at an entrance on a motor vehicle, wound of a leg(foot) by an axe on a halt). But as such actions (cooking, transport crossings(moving), the organization of a marching life) are an organic part of travel also the traumas received at it(these), it is necessary to consider as tourist.
So, if in most general view to define(determine) accidents in tourism as an inadvertent trauma or death of the person, proisshedshie as a result of unexpected injuring influence in conditions of active tourist travel, in what the reasons of their occurrence?
The clauses made at an estimation of unexpectedness of tourist traumas, allow to consider(examine) accidents as result of a combination natural and casual and accordingly to allocate objective and subjective factors of their occurrence.
However far not all can be divided(shared) factors on not dependent on will of the person and depending(dependent) from it(her). Here it is only emphasized, that the subjective factor in a greater measure is connected with mistakes(errors) and the infringements admitted(allowed) by the victim, than objective. As a rule, on a route seldom there are the accidents caused only by one objective reasons. That are caused by not predicted displays of forces majeure of the nature - earthquake, flooding, a thunder-storm concern to them, for example, or that are connected with hidden(latent) (not giving in to preliminary revealing) defects in marching equipment.
Usually all the reasons of event closely interwine and mutually influence against each other. Quite often they even are difficult for finding out and differentiating, because in each concrete example the same circumstances can represent itself as the objective or subjective factor, reflecting law and accident of event. So, povyshenno the dangerous site of a route creates objective conditions for a traumatism of tourists and who will suffer on it(him) - will be substantially business of a case. And on the contrary, the traumatism of the undisciplined, inattentive and not skilled person is the natural phenomenon, and the place of misfortune will be defined(determined) by a case.
Similar complexity, interdependence and integrated approach of factors of occurrence of accidents allows to consider(count) far not settling(exhausting;exhaustive) traditional division of dangers on tourist travel on two greater(big) groups: the dangers caused by insufficient physical, technical both moral preparation of people and their wrong behaviour, and the dangers caused by a relief and climatic factors. It is difficult to agree and with statements, that the main danger of tourism are only complex(difficult) routes and dangerous sites of a way (t. e. The objective reasons). At the same time it is impossible to recognize as originators of all accidents in tourism of one people (the subjective factor). Similar denying of the objective reasons in a tourist traumatism pulls together the given hypothesis with the statement of bourgeois scientist X not demanding criticism. At. Gejdrjcha, that on manufacture of 88 % of accidents there is on fault(wine) of workers because of such lacks of the person, as greed, an imprudence, fieriness, nervousness, excitability, hastiness, 10 % - on fault(wine) of machines(cars) and 2 % - impreventable traumas " on fault(wine) of the god ".
The most productive way of creation of the real scheme(plan) of dangers to tourism (reflecting the validity, a not assumptions or wishes of separate persons) is an analysis of a statistical material on a traumatism.
For finding-out of relative density of factors of occurrence of incidents it is expedient to consider(examine) them separately. At the same time the analysis on the "settled" positions (failures, on rocks, failures on an ice, rockfalls, the avalanches, insufficient experience of the head, insufficiently high-calorie feed(meal), weak knowledge of area of travel and t. The item) is represented very fractional and not in all indicative as considers different and at times incommensurable, being in different planes, the reasons of events.
Below for the analysis of factors of a traumatism as the working scheme(plan) the grouping on so-called "epidemiological" features is selected(elected). The matter is that a number(line) of foreign researchers in connection with intensive growth of accidents on road transport have offered for studying ways of struggle against a traumatism to use the methods accepted in an expert(a practice) of studying of epidemics. Accidents are offered to be considered(examined) as result of interaction of all forces participating in competition between the person and environment(Wednesday) surrounding it(him), that, in opinion of researchers, enables to apply a similar method as the scientific approach to a problem of accident prevention.
Really, and in a tourist traumatism if to consider(examine) it(him) under such unusual corner of sight, it is possible to find a number(line) of curious analogies to epidemiological diseases.
First, a carrier of "epidemic" of tourist accidents the person who acts as those more often force of a personal example, serves as erroneous sensation of impunity of infringement of security measures.
Secondly, there is a precise geographical localization of accidents. They have usually strongly pronounced " the centers of epidemic ", dated to the certain areas, and " the smeared periphery ".
Thirdly, "epidemic" differently amazes various groups of the population, in the same way, as it happens to the present(true) infectious diseases. Men, women, teenagers, children, inhabitants of cities or countrysides, people of different age not equally suffer from accidents in tourism.
Further, on frequency and weights of accidents, as well as at epidemics, are reflected such factors, as a season of year, meteorological conditions, character of contact of "sick" (infringers) with "healthy", etc.
At last, as means of struggle against a tourist traumatism "inoculation" of knowledge, skills, experience, increase of the general(common) physico-moral stability of people to "disease", active массово-explanatory and educational work with the population serve.
Approaching(Suiting) to a tourist traumatism with a measure of epidemiological research, it is possible from among the reasons defining(determining) occurrence of accident, to allocate four, forming the formula: " a route - equipment - the traveller - a society ". For each kind of tourism the first elements of this complex will look(appear) particularly, for example as " the river - a boat - the helmsman ", " road - the machine(car) - the driver " and t. Item
Within the limits of such conditional formula it is easier to make an estimation of the factors leading occurrence of accidents, and to differentiate the imaginary and valid reasons of danger on routes.
But before some words about character, distribution and a degree of weight of tourist traumas.
The traumas most typical for tourists are easy(light) damages of finitenesses: bruises, attritions, grazes, fine cuts, naminy. As a rule, are especially subject travmirovaniju legs(foots) - on them it is necessary up to 3/4 all marching damages. Easy(light) burns, local obmorozhenija are typical also. Stretchings and other damages svjazok various joints, dislocations and crises, wounds from sharp (axe) and stupid(blunt) (stone) of subjects are not excluded. From diseases more often others there are poisonings, diarrheas, colds.
By kinds of tourism "localization" of traumas it is most simple on the pedestrian travel: the majority of traumas falls on legs(foots) and, as a rule, is shown in the form of attritions, naminov leather(skin) stops and damages of the copular device of joints (talocrural or, that less often, knee).
On water active routes there can be traumas of hands - grazes, failures of a leather(skin), a crack, a stretching svjazok luchezapjastnyh joints. Sometimes attritions of buttocks and backs, stretchings of back muscles, bruises. Radiculitises, quinsy, burns from excessive light exposure the sun are frequent.
The greatest danger of traumas on water is connected with possible(probable) utopleniem (asfiksiej).
At employment(occupations) by winter kinds of tourism damages of the сумочно-copular device of talocrural and knee joints are characteristic; traumas of lobbies svjazok and anklebones golenostopa at falling forward, a meniscus and lateral svjazok a knee joint at falling back. It is widespread obmorozhenie fingers and heels of legs(foots), fingers and wrists of hands, noses, ears, cheeks. Cases of burns a flame of a fire and hot food are frequent.
Traumas on mountain and speleological (cave) travel are various: attritions of a leather(skin), burns of palms (sometimes backs and buttocks) friction at misoperation of a cord, ushiblennye wounds, on occassion brain concussions, damages of internal bodies, crises of finitenesses. For mountaineering burns and diseases of eyes are characteristic also local obmorozhenija, at the blinding sun.
In veloputeshestvijah there can be attritions of internal surfaces beder to palms of hands, a stretching of the copular device of the bottom finitenesses. At times during fast driving in eyes motes, fine insects get. As result of falling extensive grazes, bruises are not excluded. Sometimes there are crises (usually kljuchits), a brain concussion and ушибленно-lacerations.
The same traumas are specific and to motor-tourism.
On a degree of weight the majority of tourist traumas lungs also are not accompanied by disability. But the certain percent(interest) of traumas in tourism concerns to heavy damages. As direct data about such parities(ratio) are not present, it is necessary to take advantage of analogies. So, according to a sports traumatism *, very heavy traumas make 0,3 % of all accidents in sports, heavy - 2,7 %, average weight (with loss of sports work capacity for the term of till 2 months) - 10 %. The others of 87 % of traumas belong to categories easy(light) and very easy(light).
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* 3. Mironov, L.Heifetz. Preventive maintenance of traumas in sports and the pre-medical help. FiS, 1966
Data about a road and transport traumatism give other picture: on English sources, for motorcyclists on one accident with a fatal outcome 14 heavy traumas and 36 lungs are necessary; for bicyclists on one victim - 15 heavy and 61 easy(light) case travmirovanija.
The household traumatism in which on the last falls up to 9/10 damages is rather safe on a parity(ratio) of heavy and easy(light) damages.
In tourism, as is known, it is difficult to differentiate elements of a sports, household and transport traumatism (even if precisely to allocate one sports travel). Therefore it is represented real, that parities(ratio) between traumas on a degree of their weight at employment(occupations) by tourism will be close to some average proportion, considering data on a traumatism in sports, a life and on transport used in tourism. Means, in active tourism (subdividing damages, on 3 degrees of weight) on one heavy (fatal) case it is necessary 30 - 50 traumas of average weight and up to 200 - 300 lungs.
The same parities(ratio) prove to be true results of random inspection of magazines of first-aid posts of tourist centers and interrogation of instructors. At the same time they can be accepted only as averages for all kinds of tourism, as on some travel (in particular, mountain, water and especially "wheel") the raised(increased) death rate and weight of damages is marked(celebrated). Anyway, it is known, that in Austria for a year on 86 fatal cases with mountain tourists, climbers and mountain skiers it was necessary about 6 thousand the traumas which have demanded transportation of victims.
For reflection of a true picture of weight of a traumatism it is necessary to collect data in the various establishments connected with the organization of hikes and service of travellers on routes, - tourist контрольно-saving items(points), the маршрутно-qualifying commissions, tourist centers, clubs, sektsijah, collectives of physical culture. It is necessary to remember, that when the documentation of first-aid posts undertakes a basis only or it is judicial the-medical examination, given appear incomplete because the most part of traumas is not considered by them. It is impossible to be limited to the analysis of reports of heads and instructors of groups as damages not heavy or terminated recover during travel to them do not show more often.
Fuller picture oral analysis of results of travel with participants of each group (though here again there are cases of concealment by victims of the traumas) and gives written interrogations of heads of the groups, spent the public commissions which were deal with problems of tourist safety. In the latter case interrogations should be spent regardless to offset of tourist travel and have for an object accumulation of a statistical material.
ROUTE AS THE SOURCE OF DANGER
From what party(side) to approach(suit) to tourist routes to estimate(appreciate) their causality in a traumatism? How to define(determine) their danger? Opinions existing on this question are inconsistent. One consider(count), that between quantity(amount) of accidents on travel and remoteness and complexity of routes there is a simple dependence: the more difficultly and dlitelnee routes, the more often and more dangerously a traumatism. Hence, accidents can be avoided if to limit tourists to hikes on even tracks of residential suburbs of rest and to not organize lasting many days travel to geographically remote and uninhabited areas.
Others are convinced, what not areas, and dangerous sites and obstacles in routes serve as the main sources of a traumatism. It is accepted to consider(count) also, that the negative role of these sites and obstacles is shown at deterioration of suitably-климатических conditions and that the great bulk of accidents occurs(happens) in conditions of bad visibility, during evening or night time, and a fog, at a rain, a wind, snowstorm.
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Mountain Altai... The Abrupt slopes, unstable taluses, an artful fog and other obstacles quite often rise on a way of tourists, it is able(skilful) to pass, and if it is impossible successfully to overcome them and to achieve a victory over blind forces of the nature - here one of the purposes which are put before themselves by people on sports travel. A photo.
It is possible to understand such divergence in estimations: a tourist route - concept very capacious. It(he) includes, for example, the geographical characteristic of area and first of all its(his) estimation orogidrografii on peresechennosti a relief, to biases and capacity(power) of water streams, presence of bogs, sand, rocks, an ice, etc. Each of these natural elements is in the certain stage of development and conceals for the person danger of a collapse(landslide), an avalanche, snosa fast current; complicates a way heavy rise, a difficult ferry, an insuperable threshold, a taiga blockage or on the contrary, absence of vegetation.
The route includes an estimation of suitably-климатических conditions and is always concrete on a season, month and even hour of day. On the same site during each separate moment can be zharko or coldly, chilly or dozhdlivo, it is silent or pronizyvajushche it is windy, svetlo or sumerechno. Within the limits of one season under influence of meteorological conditions the snow cover, for example, can give more than ten appreciable for skiers and in a different degree increasing danger of a route of updatings: a snow a dry, loose, friable, crude, viscous, dense ice crust, strong firn, artful "board", rigid "cement".
The route includes and often predetermines a way, a kind and features of movement of the tourist. And sometimes with very high degree of a concrete definition: only on folding kayaks, only on inflatable boats, only on mountain skiing with braking adaptations... The Route dictates features of the organization of a camp life, kinds of camp works, a mode of running day, a parity(ratio) of simple and potentially dangerous sites of a way.
Proceeding from such wide understanding of a tourist route, we shall try to analyse causality of a traumatism depending on area of travel, a season, day of week, time of day, weathers, a kind of movement, presence of dangerous sites and a category of complexity of a hike.
On frequency of accidents between various geographical areas of the country there is a certain difference,
As a whole for all kinds of travel and categories of incidents travelling by way of the greatest repeatability for 1968 - 1969 can be named Caucasus, mountains of Central Asia and Kazakhstan (Tien Shan), Altai, Urals Mountains, the Center of the European part, Kareliya, Crimea, Pamir, Pribaikalye and Transbaikalia, Kola peninsula, Sayan mountains, the Far East, Carpathians. On the first 3 from these areas it is necessary more than half of known cases of a heavy traumatism, on the last 4 - less to one tenth.
The data of five years' prescription taken for the control though a little also change sequence of areas on conditional danger, but simultaneously confirm, that the majority of heavy traumas occurs(happens) in the areas for a long time mastered in the tourist attitude(relation). On the first place among them there is Caucasus, and not Central, high-mountainous and remote, and is usual prichernomorskie slopes of the Western Caucasus and Northern Caucasus.
Significant frequency of traumas, especially in comparison with a small amount of natural dangers or their precise localization, the Center of the European part and Crimea - areas of mass development of tourism differs.
Close the list the territories poorly mastered, visited(attended) mostly skilled enough tourists, including, for example, Kola peninsula and the Far East to which can attribute the raised(increased) danger. The gradation of territories resulted(brought) above - not is division of areas on dangerous and safe: the quantity(amount) of tourist traumas only partially depends on features of natural factors of district.
In a greater degree it is connected with quality of preparation and carrying out of hikes, presence of the organized or "wild" groups, kinds of practised travel, a level of tourist service (in particular, quality of work of контрольно-saving services).
Frequency of a traumatism first of all is connected, certainly, with intensity of movement of groups on routes, with total of the people arriving to this or that area. Therefore, having considered the attitude(relation) between actual quantity(amount) of traumas, which principal cause there were natural factors, and number of the travellers endanger in given district, to speak about a seeming distinction between areas more correctly.
From distribution of accidents on seasons it is possible to establish(install), that obviously expressed "peak" of a traumatism is necessary for June - September (about 70 % of damages). The heavy appear July, and then August for which it is dated more than half of tourist traumas of year. The most "safe" period - second half of November and December (less than 1 % of a traumatism). Intermediate position is borrowed(occupied) with January, February and the March, "bringing" together about 10 % of accidents from which from half up to two thirds occur(happen) in winter "peak" - time of a student's vacation. Approximately on 10 % of accidents it is necessary also for the spring (the end of April - May) and autumn (October - the beginning of November).
These parities(ratio) precisely enough reflect dynamics(changes) of employment(occupation) of people tourism within a year and in general coincide with representation about time of summer holidays as the period of the most mass hikes. However the traumatism and mass character not always are directly proportional each other. In percentage expression they give an original parameter of seasonal danger of routes which is highest for months of tourist inter-season period.
The last should draw special attention. In fact for the expired fifth anniversary the quantity(amount) of the traumas received by travellers during transitive весенне-autumn time has sharply increased. So, if in 1964 accidents with a heavy outcome during April - May and October - November made 5 % from their quantity(amount) for a year in 1968 - 1969 their share has increased up to 20 %.
Such tendency partially speaks prolongation of a tourist season, presence of several days of rest on May and November holidays, and also growing popularity of travel to a transition period. But the increase in quantity(amount) of traumas advances growth of mass character of hikes at this time, that testifies to real complication and the raised(increased) danger of routes in interseasonal conditions and on impreparations of those who sends on them. Therefore the specified tendency should be considered and find certain "antidotes", for example in the form of increase of requirements to tourist experience going in interseasonal travel.
Frequency of accidents on routes is connected also with the certain days of week and time of day.
Saturday and Sunday are most fraught with dangers. These days in 1968 - 1969 it was necessary more than 4/7 cases heavy travmirovanija, that basically speaks a high share of traumas in hikes of the day off and one-day excursions. Obviously, the increase in a traumatism in the certain days reflects influence of the subjective reasons depending from travelling. Some exception can make avto-, moto-and veloputeshestvija which safety is defined(determined) as well not dependent on tourists by change of intensity of movement on roads on days of week.
On time of day sometimes it is considered to be the most dangerous night hours. Really, at night the temperature of air reaches usually the minimum. It is the period of the greatest activity of night animals-predators and passivity of the person. And the main thing is the period when overcoming of natural obstacles in a route becomes incomparable more difficult and dangerous because of bad visibility, weariness and t. Item
But as at night tourists, as a rule, do not move on a route, and 5 % have a rest on reliably covered bivuakah the share of night accidents in their general(common) quantity(amount) does not exceed, by estimation. (At the same time, considering, that the percent(interest) of tourists moving by night from their general(common) number on routes incomparably is less, it once again confirms the fact of the raised(increased) danger of transitions in night conditions.)
Rather the small amount of traumas (up to 10 %) happens during evening, twilight time of day, that sometimes coincides with the tightened(delayed) dangerous descent(release) from pass or inconvenience of the organization bivuachnyh works in twilight. The overwhelming majority of misfortunes occurs(happens) at sufficient natural illumination(coverage) and is not dated for especially complex(difficult) sites, but it is necessary for afternoon time that speaks, obviously, exhaustion of tourists.
Same proves to be true a parity(ratio) of number of traumas for equal intervals of light time - morning (7 - 11 hours), the middle of day (11 - 15 hours), second half of day (15 - 19 hours). According to for 1968 - 1969, quantity(amount) of heavy damages for these pieces it is expressed by a proportion close to 1:2:3.
For some kinds of tourism, in particular mountain, the increase in a traumatism in second half of day reflects also ignorance by travellers of real complications of movement after poludnja when vzduvajutsja mountain streams, the snow "becomes limp", danger shoda rockfalls, avalanches, or neglect them amplifies.
Thus, the degree of danger of routes varies on time of day that is connected both with objective features of a condition of district, and with subjective circumstances of carrying out of travel.
Dependence between suitable-климатическими factors and a traumatism usually does not cause doubts. Really, from own life experience everyone represents, that the frost, a strong wind, lightning discharges, a snowfall, a rain, a fog complicate travel and can lead to a trauma or disease. On mountain and especially ski travel up to 1/5 all cases serious, a traumatism appear in any measure connected with deterioration of suitably-климатических conditions - snowstorm, a blizzard, low temperature. If to consider(examine) and easy(light) damages (obmorozhenija fingers, solar burns of a leather(skin), " snow blindness ") the share of such cases increases in 2 - 3 times.
At the same time in other kinds of tourism (the pedestrian, water) this percent(interest) considerably below also allows to consider(count), that as a whole in 7 - 8 cases from 10 weather conditions do not play not only solving, but also a collateral role in a heavy traumatism. It is curious, that close data are resulted(brought) for road incidents in the USA where more than 80 % of accidents occur(happen) at clear weather, about 10 % - during a rain and less than 10 % - during snowfalls and fogs.
To deduce(remove) from all listed the conclusion about size of danger of forces majeure of an atmosphere for tourists now it is difficult, as there are no exact data about quantity(amount) of the traumas caused by these forces carried to passed(taken place) kilometrazhu or to time lead in conditions of adverse weather. Besides complications of weather, and impreparation to them of travellers are dangerous not, that, in particular, happens at sudden changes of weather and its(her) uncharacteristic displays for the given geographical area or a season. So, the tourists going a winter hike to Kola peninsula, in advance know, that them can expect 30-градусные frosts, gales on passes, snowstorm by "charges" for two-rub(-three) days in succession. Concerning to it(this) as to normal, t. e. To characteristic, climatic conditions of a concrete ski route, they take necessary protective measures and safely transfer(carry) burdens of travel. At the same time, for example, downturn of temperature of air up to 0 with a strong wind in years(summer) conditions on grassy passes of the Western Caucasus or Crimea repeatedly led to serious traumas because of unexpectedness of such weather in a warm season.
Distribution of quantity(amount) of heavy accidents by the basic kinds of active movement on routes gives a parity(ratio) between the pedestrian, water, mountain and ski tourism, close to 10 : 4 : 3 : 3 though on number of participants and the perfect(absolute) lasting many days travel these kinds correspond so: 10 : 1 : 1 : 1. The share of a traumatism falling on others, not mass now, kinds - speleoturizm, a cycle tourism, automotor-tourism, and also a traumatism in экскурсионно-transport tourism and on radial routes, here is not considered.
Specified above a proportion though deny the assumption, that the pedestrian tourism is safe, however confirm discrepancy between quantity(amount) of the travel spent in the basic kinds of tourism, and quantity(amount) of traumas in them. In particular, much greater(big) pays attention in comparison with relative density of this kind a share of traumas on water routes. This divergence allows to consider(count), that kinds of tourism is separated on potential danger. As acknowledgement(confirmation) of the raised(increased) danger of water routes can serve and that half of fatal cases on the pedestrian travel is connected with water. Simultaneously it speaks about weak discipline of participants of hikes and their bad preparation for another, adjacent, to a kind of tourism. By the way, for example, 25 % of heavy traumas on the pedestrian routes occur(happen) at not planned hit of tourists in conditions of mountain or winter travel (in rockfalls, lavinoopasnye zones, on glaciers, in conditions of a sharp cold snap).
It is necessary to note and higher weight of traumas on water, mountain and ski routes, and also heavier outcome of dangerous conditions in them. For example, casual loss of consciousness or balance the tourist on a flat site of the pedestrian route, as a rule, leads to only easy(light) bruises. On the Hillside it(she) can cause falling on tens meters, crises of finitenesses, a brain concussion, on water travel to lead to falling in water, travmirovaniju about stones at the bottom, utopleniju; on a ski route - to be the precondition to obmorozheniju. Certainly, in order to prevent such outcome in these kinds of tourism special measures of the insurance are undertaken: movement on complex(difficult) sites of a mountain relief in svjazkah, on water - in life jackets and t. The item But objectively raised(increased) danger of one kinds of movement before others nevertheless remains.
To the full such conclusion concerns and to "wheel" kinds of active tourism among which also there are more dangerous kinds of movement. So, under the certificate of English statistics, " for drivers and passengers of motorcycles the probability of fatal accident approximately in 10 times exceeds those for drivers and passengers of other kinds of vehicles ". The specified parity(ratio) conceals technical danger of movement as does not consider different age structure of motorcyclists and motorists (the first on the average on 10 - 15 years are younger than the second and, hence, are more inclined to risk and recklessness). However even corrected in view of the last aside reduction in 2 - 3 times, it all the same emphasizes appreciable distinction in danger of kinds of tourism.
If to consider(examine) tourist routes on presence on them of dangerous sites, obstacles or other factors complicating travel it is possible to allocate many tens concrete dangerous moments or their combinations.
Practical guidances on tourism usually allocate(remove) enough place to transfer of dangers of mountains or waters: to rockfalls, avalanches, seljam, to collapses(landslides) of an ice, cracks on glaciers, to thresholds, banks, river blockages, navalnomu to current - and to possible(probable) sad consequences at their inept overcoming: to failures, falling, revolutions, freezing, utopleniju. However in greater(big) lists of potential dangers it is difficult to allocate the main things, giving the basic part of a tourist traumatism. Below distribution of accidents in dependence only from principal causes of heavy traumas on active routes (on results 1968 - 1969) is resulted(brought).
1. Utoplenie (on active routes of all kinds) including at ferries of 19 %, at bathing of 9 %
40 %
2. Traumas on elements of a mountain relief (in conditions of mountain, pedestrian and ski hikes) including in avalanches of 6 %
19 %
3. Overcooling (in conditions of the pedestrian and ski hikes)
13 %
4. Road accidents (on active routes of all kinds)
12 %
5. Other
16 %
Total
100 %
At the additional account of participants of passive kinds of tourism relative density utopleny (due to accidents sharply increases at bathing), and also road accidents that gives on these two parameters up to 3/4 all cases.
Cited data, however, do not contain an estimation of the valid role of complex(difficult) sites and obstacles in comparison with wrong actions of tourists. As it will be shown further, neither bathing, nor transport incidents, the overwhelming majority of diseases have no attitude(relation) to natural dangers of a route. In a combination to not planned and practically impracticable ferries (such was more half), the facts of single circulation and a group panic of unprepared beginners, and also the facts of an indiscipline and deliberate neglect the elementary insurance the number of accidents, not dependent on danger of obstacles, makes overwhelming majority. The smaller part can really be considered(examined) as a combination of objectively existing complex(difficult) natural obstacles and mistakes(errors) of tourists at their overcoming.
The interesting material for consideration of a route as source of danger is represented with the frequency of accidents carried to categories of complexity of travel.
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Are complex(difficult) and dangerous, for water travel of riverhead CHulyshman. On numerous thresholds and clips the probability overkilej is not excluded. On such rivers the skilled tourists having unsinkable plavsredstvami, are supposed by life jackets, protective helmets only. Such and sudden revolution yet does not threaten with accident. A photo.
In view of both issued, and nonformalized hikes of data for 1968 - 1969 give following distribution of a heavy traumatism on categories of complexity of routes: hikes of the day off and travel below I to. With. - 45 %; travel I to. With. - 30 %; II to. With. - 8 %; III to. With. - 8 %; IV to. с.-6 %; V to. With. - 3 %.
On materials for 1964, the specified parities(ratio) were a little bit others (accordingly 58, 19, 6, 5, 8 and 4 %), but obvious prevalence of simple routes above complex(difficult) is available. Concentration of 3/4 cases of dangerous traumas in the elementary tourist hikes, certainly, does not speak about safety vysokokategorijnyh travel. The proportion 1:25 between quantity(amount) of traumas in hikes of the maximum(supreme) and the lowest categories should not be understood as the certificate of that the skilled participant of complex(difficult) travel to 25 times is less subject to danger, than the beginner, in hikes of the day off and travel I of a category of complexity.
If the specified distribution of accidents to correlate with relative density of travel of corresponding(meeting) categories in total of hikes (on lasting many days travel I - V to. With. It in round figures makes 70, 20, 7, 2 and 1 %) relative parameters will specify some increase of danger of complex(difficult) tourist routes. On the other hand, it is necessary to remember and discrepancy of data on a tourist traumatism. The matter is that hikes IV - V categories of complexity are spent, as a rule, at the careful control of the organizations, and over them exhaustive data collect, and hikes of the day off, unfortunately, often pass(take place) without appropriate registration, and cases of a traumatism in them, especially easy(light), remain property only the nearest first-aid post and tourist section of collective of physical culture. Therefore with the big share of confidence it is possible to approve(confirm), that the probability of traumas in hikes easy(light) and complex(difficult) is expressed by sizes of one order.
Summarizing the aforesaid, it is possible to come to conclusion, that the overwhelming majority of accidents in tourism directly is not connected with high complexity of hikes, routes in the remote areas, dangerous obstacles. Do not render solving(deciding) influence on probability of a traumatism, as a rule, neither weather conditions, nor bad visibility, time of day. The certain increase in risk is marked(celebrated) at some kinds of movement and during separate seasons.
All this speaks that it is impossible to lower a tourist traumatism, for example, by means of recommendations about replacement of complex(difficult) travel with hikes on readily available routes. The similar way pushes away from the organized tourism of the most skilled active workers-sportsmen spending greater(big) public work and deprives with beginners of the instructor staff.
Refusal of complex(difficult) routes simultaneously would mean also refusal of routes of the most interesting, running on the most picturesque and exotic areas of the country where there is a natural draft of all taking a great interest tourism. To replace in these areas complex(difficult) routes simple, with preservation of the same volume of the helpful information received by people, the same positive emotions now it is not obviously possible. The Mainstream for "neutralization" of routes now, obviously, can be consecutive and systematic (but not breaking a landscape and not depriving its(his) basic advantages for travellers) an accomplishment of the most popular lines of hikes. The construction of the elementary shelters or the strong points having sets of products for tourists, means of medical aid, funds of the saving equipment, radiotransferring(radiotransmitting) devices for communication(connection) with tourist контрольно-saving service, prompting and strengthening of ferries, naveska insuring cables and circuits on passes, marks, clearing and strengthening of tracks on complex(difficult) sites, and also the edition of competent descriptions of routes and their good schemes(plans) - all this, undoubtedly, will help(assist) to eliminate(erase;remove) the sources of danger depending on routes.
In the future, in process of development of technical progress, the devices almost completely excluding risk on a route " on fault(wine) of the nature " will be constructed. An example of they be foreign high-mountainous kanatnye the roads delivering people on the highest tops where tourists get in carefully fenced cells(cages)-open-air cages... However at a construction of "cells(cages)" it is necessary to consider annually increasing interest and draft of people to places where "cells(cages)" still are not present...
The accomplishment of tourist lines, certainly, does not exclude reasonable restrictions on participation of people on complex(difficult) travel. On the routes, differing the raised(increased) danger of a way of movement and a season (for example, during spring time on porozhistym to the rivers when usually there is a unstable weather, character of natural obstacles is often poorly known, and tourists had not time to enter yet into the appropriate sports form), it is expedient to suppose only the groups having raised(increased) "safety factor".
Application of restrictions to routes demands the thoughtful approach. Motor transport has brought with itself of victims in thousand times more, the tourism, but nobody brings a attention to the question on reduction of speed of a motor vehicle till speed of the pedestrian. Though one it could, possibly to approach to zero number of accidents on transport with a fatal outcome. It is obvious, that such price of safety would be excessive. At the same time with success restrictions of speed up to 20, 40 or 60 km depending on concrete danger of occurrence of an emergency are applied. The same approach is expedient and in relation to complex(difficult), not deprived dangers, to sports routes - to the routes bringing doubtless advantage(benefit), the, that they bring up courage, persistence, resoluteness, give the important applied skills, perfect feeling of a collectivism and mutual assistance, form persistence in achievement of an object in view.
In conclusion of analysis of "guilt" of routes it is necessary to note, that at definition of their danger it is impossible to start with one objective conditions of district, a season or a kind of tourism. Prominent feature of the organized sports tourism just also consists that for each category of people the limit of admissible complexity of travel (in the certain kind of movement) above which, at the given level of their experience, to it(him;them) roads are not present is established(installed). Differently, the experience of the traveller there is less, the the route resolved to it(him) objectively is more safe.
The similar strict regulation puts beginning(starting) tourist in more favourable position in comparison, for example, with the young motorcyclist or the geologist. And it(she) allows to concern to objective parameters of danger of a route differently.
So, the owner of a motorcycle, hardly having received the rights, joins the general(common) stream of intensive traffic. For it(him) the most complex(difficult) routes on the city, the most dangerous crossroads are opened(open). And then it is necessary to mark(celebrate), that motorcyclists which experience of driving has made less than 6 months, have on the to the account(invoice) in comparison with an average indice in 2 times more than road incidents.
The graduate of the prospecting faculty directed for work in a remote party(set), for some "field" months will pass(take place) tens routes, though and without the established(installed) category of complexity, but nevertheless not deprived neither difficulties, nor dangers. Will pass(take place), being guided by industrial necessity, instead of obligatory observance of rules " from simple to complex(difficult) ". Probably, will rise on abrupt kamnepadoopasnomu to a slope or it will be alloyed on the little-known river. And, certainly, will be exposed at the beginning to greater danger of accident, than its(his) more skilled comrades.
In these examples is competent to speak that there are employment(occupations), work; routes potentially dangerous and the degree of their danger varies from a minimum - for people skilled - up to a maximum - for beginners.
In relation to correctly organized tourism it is possible to approve(confirm) another: there are routes and kinds of travel potentially dangerous, but the degree of their danger is minimal for the people who are having the right of their passage. Other categories of people on these routes should be excluded.
WHETHER THE EQUIPMENT IS GUILTY?
Let's consider(examine) a causal role in accidents of equipment - the second component of the formula " a route - equipment - the traveller - a society ". As equipment we shall understand all technical and material maintenance of the traveller: means of transportation, subjects of a marching life, clothes, footwear, means of the insurance, food stuffs, the medical first-aid set and t. Item
The role of a condition of means of transportation in safety of the travel connected with use of motors or mechanical drives, is obvious. On domestic data, each fifth failure(accident) caused by technical malfunction of the car, brings to ruin people.
The most frequent cases of a traumatism of the tourists going on motor vehicles, motorcycles, mopeds or bicycles, give malfunction in the brake device, trunks, steering management and the lighting equipment. So, by results of one of checkups in the USA everyone 2 of 5 tested machines(cars) were in a condition which is not provided safe operation. The first under the defective sheet went headlights (24 % of all machines(cars)), then brake devices (17 %), back lanterns (15 %) and steering management (10 %).
It is not less important, though quality of equipment for safety of movement and overcoming of obstacles in water, mountain, ski and speleological routes is not fraught usually so heavy consequences. The low floatage, bad stability, low seaworthiness of the courts(vessels) chosen for travel, absence on them of the adaptations providing nepotopljaemost, or insufficiently strong, incorrectly picked up on width, flexibility and a material of a sliding surface of a ski, a ski without a metal fringing on a mountain ice crust, with small noskovym a bend on a deep friable snow - can serve all this the reason of accident.
As 2/3 times of travel are necessary on halts, lodgings for the night and bivuachnye works, for the prevention(warning) of a traumatism conformity to the purpose(assignment;destination) of subjects of a marching life is completely not indifferent: palatok, sleeping bags, kostrovyh accessories(belongings), heating devices. In some conditions - at strong frosts, incessant rains, at absence of natural fuel on a route - bivuak can represent the most labour-consuming, strained(intense) and even a unsafe part of a camp life. Anyway guards, that 1/10 known cases of a heavy traumatism and diseases in winter hikes it is dated for halts. The reasons of the majority of them - wrong behaviour of people, but to some extent they speak also easy(light) promokaemostju standard palatok, insufficient teploizoljatsionnymi qualities of sleeping bags, inconvenience and nebezopasnostju a tourist utensils available on sale, absence in manufacture of marching ovens and t. Item
The equipment of the participant of group, its(his) clothes and footwear define(determine) an opportunity of personal protection against adverse factors of an environment. The small quantity(amount) of woolen or other warm things, absence vetro-and vlagozashchitnoj clothes can put the person, especially during winter time and in high mountains, in threatened position. Even such trifles as short mittens, the unsuccessful style of the hood, the broken fastener "lightning", easily lead local obmorozhenijam. In the summer the bad design of clothes, depriving with an opportunity to adjust(regulate) it(her) teploizoljatsionnye qualities, conducts to an overheat of an organism. Especially often at travellers because of inappropriate on the size, a style and other data of footwear legs(foots) are injured: are formed naminy, callouses and water bubbles, "get off and taken" by a frost fingers. That fact testifies to distribution of the last, that up to 9/10 all obmorozheny usually it is necessary on the bottom finitenesses. Because of unsatisfactory coupling a sole of footwear with ground, rocky surfaces, an ice there are stretchings and breaks svjazok, failures and the falling threatening on a complex(difficult) relief by heavy traumas.
The dangerous situation because of a route of a set of food stuffs poor-quality, low-calorie or inappropriate to climatic conditions is not excluded. The reason of undereating and an exhaustion can be damage of products because of a weak factory packing, absence of initial preserving processing, too short periods of storage. Same sometimes leads to gastric diseases and food poisonings.
Are clear, at last, and the most serious consequences on travel if the group does not have safety, protective and saving equipment or it unsatisfactory quality. Arguing theoretically, in general it is impossible to make a little complex(difficult) mountain hike without the basic and auxiliary cords, safety (climbing) belts(zones), ledorubov, avalanche cords, goggles and masks; water - without life jackets and the means guaranteeing nepotopljaemost of courts(vessels); speleological - without a protective hydrooveralls, safety helmets with nalobnymi lanterns, ladders and cords; motorcycle - without the helmets protecting heads and cervical pozvonki of drivers and passengers; and any travel - without the medical first-aid set completed by all necessary means.
In practice it turns out sometimes differently. Absence or small quantity(amount) of some kinds of tourist equipment on sale or hire pushes separate undisciplined people on fulfilment of travel by unusable means and " the big blood ". As a result it is possible to meet in a winter taiga of tourists on narrow skis and in racing low shoes, in mountains - in gym shoes with erased rifleniem and with a linen cord for the insurance, on water - without elementary saving means. Usually such groups consist of beginners and go on rather simple routes. But in fact such routes as it was already spoken, give the lion's share of incidents.
It is not necessary to search, however, for the reasons of a traumatism only in backlog of industrial release of equipment from growing need(requirement) for it(him). The increase in quantity(amount), improvement of quality, a variety of assortment of subjects of a hardware yet will not eliminate(erase;remove) accidents on fault(wine) of equipment. Much will depend here on participants of travel.
First, tourists should provide, that the equipment in group was completely and the same that its(his) one subjects corresponded(met) to another and supposed in emergencies interchangeability. It is known, that perfectly operating(working) separately the marching kerosene stove and a tourist flat bucket cannot be applied together for the factor of their joint efficiency duty is insignificant. At use in group of polytypic bicycles or boats participants will be stretched(be dragged out) on a route, and at malfunction of one machines(cars) or courts(vessels) on them it will be impossible to put details from other machines(cars) and courts(vessels). Considerably will complicate a winter hike and will cause the raised(increased) predisposition to accidents because of premature weariness of one members of group at useless work of others such "trifle", as different width of skis in tourists. At the same time the dangerous situation is easy(light) for unloading, if there is an opportunity to replace one kind of equipment another. So, at loss of mittens and risk fast obmorozhenija travellers not time successfully replacing mittens gained(helped) woolen socks, and at damage ski a boot - valenoks for persons on duty who take usually counting upon the largest leg(foot) in group.
Secondly, during preparation for travel it is desirable to adapt specially equipment for concrete conditions and dangers of a route, to strengthen its(his) separate details and units. So, for a winter route on mountains it is expedient to strengthen on footwear povodki-лыжеудерживатели, skis warning loss at spontaneous unfastening fastening, to make an additional braid of rings ski palok, to establish(install) self-made "braked" on skis. For water travel, as a rule, it is required to glue an environment of a kayak on kilsonu and to the bottom belt(zone) stringerov rubber protectors, sshit an apron (if it(him) is not present) and t. Item
It is important to check up carefully also presence of reserve subjects of material maintenance: a repair set, spare details for ski fastening, a material for repairing an environment and a skeleton of a kayak, spare parts for a motorcycle, spare goggles and mittens, elektrobatareek and bulbs to a pocket lantern, an emergency reserve of food stuffs, matches. It is impossible to forget, that absence near at hand spare equipment can put group in threatened position. So, if at breakage row a raft on a complex(difficult) site of the river is not present spare, there can be a failure(an accident) in the first seconds after incident.
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The heavy backpack on a back, straps cargo nart behind shoulders is not a tribute to false romanticism, and severe necessity. Without carefully thought over, driven(adjusted) and tested equipment nobody can guarantee safety of ski hikes across Polar Urals Mountains. A photo.
Vital travel for safety and at the same time rather simply independently to make(produce) protectively-saving means. Many tourists-water-transport workers with success use self-made waistcoats and bibs from podkladnyh medical circles, lifebuoy rings from automobile and belts(zones) from bicycle chambers. On plavu and protection against impacts by stones and logs on the rough rivers since recent time began to apply the self-made protectively-saving complete sets consisting from penoplastovyh of life jackets to deduction, shchitkov for beder and shins, helmets, overlays on shoulders, elbows, knees. To make kayaks nepotomljaemymi, many equip additionaly with their self-made air capacities (usually rubber chambers).
Small constructive completions, application of new materials, improvement of quality of the subjects which directly have been not connected with safety, actually also reduce probability of a traumatism and diseases in hikes. So, application self-made penoplastovyh mats and porolonovyh kovrikov reduces danger prostudnyh diseases, and application bahil (protective a stocking, put on atop of ski a boot) - obmorozheny.
Simple change of the form, material or color of subjects matters even. For an example we shall stop on the last. Bright painting of separate subjects or the alarm cords adhered to them warns uterju things on a route. Besides successfully picked up coloring of clothes and equipment "amuses" an eye, distracts from travelling burdens, reduces fatigue in conditions of monotonous movement. One business monotonous is dirty-green tone of a uniform, backpacks, sleeping bags and tents, another - when equipment is bright and is variously painted.
Sometimes color has the direct attitude(relation) to safety; if in a hike to take skis of light tones at a strong snowfall or in twilight they can be not visible on legs(foots) that will complicate movement. By searches from air of the lost group it is hard to find out white tent on a snow. And if tourists on taiga travel are dressed in traditional shtormovki and have no any bright and appreciable details on clothes and backpacks, them at times it is possible to accept for something another, that can become the reason of accident.
In 1966 the tourist group of Novosibirsk made travel across Primorski Krai. In one of days of a hike the head has allowed to leave to two tourists forward to hunt. Hunters moved downwards on a valley, some times passed from coast to coast and in half an hour of a way have noticed on other party(side) of the river, in gleams of a bush, flashing of a grey spot(stain) as it seemed to them, " sides sohatogo ". Has thundered a shot - "side" has flashed in other gleam, still a shot - and... Shout of the person was distributed. So one of participants of a hike has been wounded. It has appeared, that the group has overtaken for hunters and moved in parallel it(him) on distance 60 - 80 m on other coast If tourists had bright clothes (in fact hunters with this purpose carry in some places bright head bandages), such infringements, as inconsistency of movement of subgroups, the reticence about a zone of hunting or shooting on not clear purpose, could and not terminate so tragically.
The choice of concrete tone for equipment and clothes depends on conditions of travel. Are brightest and cause involuntary concentration of attention both on a white background of a snow, and on a green or grey background of a wood, a field, a hillside orange and, in some smaller degree, red and yellow colors. Involuntarily stops a sight alternation of yellow and black strips that is widely used in precautionary signs (by means of which, according to a foreign press, at the separate industrial enterprises it was possible to reduce number of accidents more than to 50 %). Such contrast and draft colour scores are necessary first of all for those subjects which are directly connected with a safety (avalanche cords, life jackets), or for what are a potential source of accident (cylinders with gas, canisters with gasoline).
Much more often, than because of technical subquality work, neukomplektovannosti or crudity of various trifles in equipment, threat of a traumatism is created because of simple (to tell more correctly, criminal) negligences - uteri axes or matches, utoplenija buckets, prozhigannja sleeping bags and palatok, damage of clothes and, especially, footwear at inept drying at a fire.
Sometimes the reason of accident appears use of equipment not to destination and not in those conditions and modes on which it has been calculated.
In 1969 the Kiev tourists made mountain travel across the Western Caucasus. At rise on pass Hokel the head of group because of bad coupling footwear with a slope was broke and has started to fall. The cord by means of which the insurance was carried out, has not sustained loading. The person has flown by 150 - 200 m on an abrupt ice slope and was jammed in a bergschrund, having received bruises of a body, a crack of the arch of a skull and damage of an ankle joint.
Investigation of accident has shown, that group, in enough equipped by all necessary: mountain boots, cats, the basic and auxiliary cords, - simply has not applied equipment to destination. Failure of the head has occured(happened) when it(he) in cats tried to overcome smooth rocks of " the mutton foreheads ". The cord has bursted, as was not the basic (that by the moment of failure(accident) was in a backpack at one of participants), and thin repshnurom.
On specifications, repshnur does not provide safety of movement on a mountain relief and can be applied only to the auxiliary purposes, and cats are used only for movement on an ice and firnu.
Thus, estimating(appreciating) a role of equipment in a traumatism, it is possible to note, that the majority of the actions directed on decrease(reduction) of dangers, connected with technics(technical equipment), now depends on the initiative and desire of participants of travel. At the same time it is clear, that in the long term there are more than problems of special material equipment of tourism will pass from sphere of tourist technical creativity and "self-service" to a wide industrial basis. It will allow to introduce in manufacture such equipment necessary for amateur tourism, as the facilitated radiotransferring(radiotransmitting) devices for bilaterial communication(connection), magnitometricheskuju the equipment for searches fallen asleep by avalanches and many other things.
At designing new protective and safety adaptations it is necessary to consider, that they should be as much as possible simple and convenient in the use. Excessively heavy, inconvenient, complicating movements stir(prevent) the life jackets which are quickly misting over and sunglasses tiring sight to the tourist and consequently them use a little. Adaptations which increase number of working-class movements at overcoming an obstacle do not suit also, cause loss of time and forces of travellers.
Reduction of a traumatism should be promoted by constructive improvement by already let out(by already released) industry of production, for example to tourist footwear. In particular, it is necessary to increase "stsepljaemost" footwear with smooth surfaces (probably, due to deep riflenija soles or due to combined trikonej). For the majority of kinds of tourism the footwear "sparing" an ankle joint, t is necessary. e. With high top and the cuffs, rigidly fixing golenostop in a vertical cross-section plane. Simultaneously the footwear should suppose free movements of fingers and the maximal amplitude of a bend of a leg(foot) in a vertical longitudinal plane.
So, it is impossible to consider(count) one kinds of equipment dangerous, and others - safe as these qualities are in direct dependence on correctness of use of equipment. Besides danger should be understood not only as an opportunity of direct negative influence of a subject (for example, explosion of a kerosene stove), but also as increase in risk of travel at absence or damage of equipment (danger obmorozhenija if there are no warm clothes, danger of loss of orientation when the compass is spoiled).
At the same time it is possible to allocate those kinds of equipment which at inability of the tourist bring the heaviest traumas. Means of transportation first of all concern to them: motor vehicles, motorcycles, bicycles, kayaks, rafts. To more correct use and an additional equipment their safety devices should be paid special attention. The statistics of road incidents marks(celebrates), that in places of compulsory introduction of safety belts(zones) and protective helmets the number of damages has decreased more than twice,
Improvement of tourist equipment, application insuring and accident protection devices, certainly, will reduce a traumatism. However that the percent(interest) of accidents where the bad condition and wrong selection of equipment would serve as a principal cause of a traumatism of travellers, is insignificant is clear also. The equipment is much more often can appear only as one of the minor circumstances promoting creation of unsafe conditions on a route.
PERSONAL SUSCEPTIBILITY OF DANGER
As it has been shown above, the tourist traumatism caused by material factors - by a route and equipment, it is rather insignificant. We shall stop on so-called personal factors. In fact safety of any element of a route, a kind of equipment in many respects is defined(determined) by a level of preparation, consciousness and other data of the concrete person. In other words, transformation of everything that surrounds the tourist on a route, in potentially dangerous environment is as though function which depends on a degree of a deviation(rejection) in behaviour of the traveller from some average norm(rate).
Hence, it is possible to speak about certain, greater or smaller, susceptibility of each tourist of danger of accident,
Most the vivid example of it(this) is presence in any enough to numerous marching group (as well as in general in any collective) "loser" to whom more often and there are any incidents. There are even the special establishments, engaged revealing of "losers" and definition of propensity to failures(accidents) at drivers, mashinistov, pilots and workers of other structures. And such selection brings the good results. So, according to institute of aviation and space medicine of the Air Forces of Germany, duly elimination by means of psychological tests of the candidate who is not meeting the requirements of work, gives economy not less than 150 thousand dollars.
At the same time, speaking about such predisposition, it is impossible to consider(count), that separate persons on any place are obviously subject to danger. More correctly from among the factors strengthening personal susceptibility of danger to allocate what raise(increase) it(her) steadily, and what raise(increase) it(her) temporarily. Various physical defects, chronic illnesses, functional infringements of nervous system concern to the first in tourism. To the second - inexperience, weak physical and technical training, exhaustion and t. Item
For convenience of a statement in this section we shall consider(examine) two parties(sides) of susceptibility of danger: 1) connected with individual suitability of the person to participation in tourist travel and 2) depending(dependent) on exhaustion. And further we shall analyse susceptibility because of insufficient experience, the wrong attitude(relation) to danger and an indiscipline.
So, whether it is possible to speak about a certain fatal susceptibility of the certain circle of people to accidents in a hike? In fact abroad destruction of travellers sometimes try to explain under Freud's theory: the person has left to wander because of the conflict conscious and subconscious, because of "inferiority complex". The sensation of deadlock, internal readiness to commit suicide, congenital susceptibility to misfortune push it(him) on unconscious suicide - it is necessary to find only conditions and a case to result(bring) a fatal verdict in the performance of.
For such conclusions there are no bases. In addition, the person of the tourist is a product of social development; participating in hikes, actively working in tourist collective, travellers are improved and in due course usually get rid of specific features which can negatively affect safety.
However it is necessary to consider, that travel make the certain demands to people, ignoring which it is possible to promote occurrence of dangerous situations really. In this sense it is possible even to allocate a category of people to which employment(occupation) by complex(difficult) kinds of sports tourism is counter-indicative.
The first group is made by the persons(faces), suffering a number(line) of diseases. Among such diseases (their list has been approved(confirmed) by Committee on physical training and sports at Ministerial council of the USSR) enter: organic heart diseases; a hypertension, diseases of a cardiac musle, a tuberculosis of lungs in an active stage, sharp diseases of lungs, bronchial tubes, nasopharynxes; chronic Qatar of a stomach, a ulcer of a duodenal gut, chronic kolit, an inflammation and koliki a bilious bubble, a hemorrhoids with frequent bleedings, loss of a direct gut; an inflammation of kidneys, pochechnyh lohanok and a bladder, stones of kidneys; a sharp inflammation of an average ear, konjunktivity, a purulent inflammation of an eye bag; infectious skin diseases, some chronic diseases of female genitals, malignant tumours, a hernia and postoperative rubtsy with bent to gryzheobrazovaniju, chronic articulate rheumatism.
As contra-indications for travel, complicating walking, habitual dislocations diseases of bodies of movement and the supporting(maintaining) device of the backbone serve in greater(big) joints of hands and legs(foots), traumas of sick joints of hands and the legs(foots), received shortly before a hike, to a contusion and brain concussions in the past with periodic headaches.
It is impossible to participate in lasting many days travel with active ways of movement to the persons(faces) who have transferred(carried) within previous month such sharp diseases, as a long flu, malignant quinsy, a typhus, a scarlet fever. As an obstacle even for one-day hikes mental diseases, a neurasthenia, epilepsija can serve.
The similar list concerns, certainly, not to all tourism. It is a question not of " the best kind of rest " (which easy(light) forms are counter-indicative to nobody), and about sports hikes. Besides the expert of a medical-sports clinic can positively solve the problem on participation in this or that concrete travel of the person and with any certain stage from the illnesses specified here.
At the same time incompatibility of the majority of diseases with participation in travel is obvious; the aggravation of illness in field conditions, at absence of the qualified medical aid, is fraught with unpleasant consequences. A trouble also that illnesses (both giving(allowing) sharp aggravations, and proceeding without dangerous "peaks") cause a number(line) of proof pathological changes in an organism: periodic weakness, an indisposition, fast fatigue, headaches, a sleeplessness, irritability, depression, depression.
All this seriously influences behaviour of the person on travel and strengthens its(his) susceptibility to those potential dangers which meet on a route. Simultaneously pathological changes weaken(easy) resistibility of an organism. For any period it is possible to compensate physical weakness or illness a strong-willed pressure(voltage), persistence, purposefulness. Such person goes to travel as speak, " on a teeth ". But stocks of nervous energy are final, and as at the patient, but strong soul of the tourist the significant part of attention leaves on struggle against the illnesses, its(his) attention and forces can not suffice on overcoming of a natural obstacle.
On frequency of heavy consequences during travel cardiovascular diseases of ischemic character, epilepsii and sharp surgical diseases (for example, appenditsit, perforation of a ulcer) prevail. Intimate diseases and attacks epilepsii are dangerous also that can lead to loss of consciousness on complex(difficult) enough site of a route. Are annually marked(celebrated) asfiksii at bathing (or it is simple washing) the tourists, suffering these illnesses, And according to foreign researchers, because of sudden heart attacks at drivers annually occurs(happens) up to 700 collisions of motor vehicles on roads USA.
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Skill independently to make(produce) saving means, to adapt available kinds of tourist equipment for concrete conditions can be useful for all travellers. Look, what catamaran of kayaks was made by these tourists, for is comparative simple, but a unsafe hike across Baikal. A photo.
Much more often, than on travel with active ways of movement (first of all patients are not solved on risk of participation in them), serdechnososudistye diseases amaze passively having a rest on tourist centers, in campings, in boarding houses. To carry such cases to tourism, strictly speaking, it is impossible, as probability of an attack for the concrete person(face) in other place, probably, would be not smaller. However it can signal about the insufficient medical control over tourists on camp sites and about their use not to destination, t. e. About a direction there people for whom sanatorium treatment is necessary.
The second group of people to which active tourism is counter-indicative, persons(faces) with various defects of sense organs make.
Partial loss of sight or easing of hearing steadily raise(increase) susceptibility of danger of accident.
Similar defects have a various degree of development and differently influence probability of a traumatism. But even insignificant easing of visual acuity or hearing can essentially weaken(easy) safety of passage of a route, especially if the traveller does not realize or hides the lack, and comrades, not knowing about it(him), do not undertake measures of secure. Practice totals many cases when such tourists lost orientation, lagged behind group and became victims of rockfalls, failures, overkilej as physically could not see or hear a signal of danger, in time notice an obstacle. Not always and heads of groups consider, that participants of travel can have latent defects of sight, defects, not so strong to wear glasses, but in conditions of insufficient illumination(coverage) doing(making) tourists poluslepymi.
Much less the one who realizes the lack is exposed to risk and tries to overcome means accessible to it(him) it(him), to compensate due to an aggravation of other feelings, enhanced attention, careful working off of tourist technics(technical equipment). As an example the tourist groups of deaf-mutes making hikes of high degrees of complexity can serve that. Therefore it is impossible to consider(count) categorically, that deafness is an absolute obstacle for employment(occupations) by tourism. According to one inspection, the percent(interest) of road and transport failures(accidents) with accidents has made for deaf(indistinct) drivers of only 0,14 % in comparison with average figure for all drivers in 3,9 %.
However it is impossible to forget, that in conditions of complex(difficult) travel as compensatory opportunities of the person are great, it is sometimes difficult to provide, whether their development will lead to a loss from the unexpected party(side). So, at people with one zrjachim an eye of collision often occur(happen) from, opposite to a blind eye.
The third group of the persons(faces) predisposed to a traumatism, what have certain functional infringements of communication(connection) between touch - the "feeling" and impellent centers and infringements of coordination of movements make.
The traveller with such lacks normally perceives external signals, including signals about danger, but cannot react to them quickly enough and precisely. Late and inexact reaction, inconsistency and uncertainty of movements or excessive fussiness considerably increase personal risk of the tourist; to it(him) it is necessary for more time to start to brake at falling on a snow slope, it(he) will pass(miss) precious shares of the second, necessary boats on maneuver before an obstacle in the river, at last, it(he) is more probable, than someone another, can damage(injure) to itself an axe a hand or a leg(foot) at usual preparation of fire wood.
The specified danger, unfortunately, usually is accepted to the temporary lack describing not trained, unexperienced and unexercised tourist. Certainly, "symptoms" here are close. And same "medicines" - gradual working off of the necessary skills, development(manufacture) of automatism of movements. Further, however, similarity does not extend. The tourist-beginner without deviations(rejections) in nervous system in due course becomes both skilled and trained, and the person with infringements of a coordination between touch and motor processes or with defects of movements only to some extent prisposobljaetsja to conditions of travel, but remains more others is subject to danger.
By the way, many researchers, engaged studying of the reasons of breakdown susceptibility on manufacture and transport, consider(count), what exactly infringements of communication(connection) between sense organs and the impellent centers star in occurrence of the majority of accidents.
Considerably reduces psychological readiness to resist dangers a unbalance of course of emotional processes at separate people.
The unbalance of emotional processes is expressed in excessively sharp reaction on razdrazhiteli, in rashness of acts and haste of their performance, in unexpected change of pleasure and grief, rise and decline of mood. Such instability of one is easily transferred(transmitted) in the closed collective to another. Even small contention or the conflict in the group, the injustice admitted(allowed) by someone or insult on comrades cause absent-mindedness, anxiety, overexcitement and as consequence(investigation) break attention, coordination, shade perception(recognition) of an approaching danger.
However not only negative emotions are fraught with unpleasant consequences. More likely on the contrary as it will seem strange at first sight: strong joyful experiences from dialogue with the picturesque nature, good friends, from successful overcoming marching difficulties often precede a traumatism. It speaks simply - employment(occupation) by tourism in itself so interestingly, that gives more occasions for pleasure, than for despondency. Other person with the raised(increased) emotional instability of the mentality, come off for the period of holiday, a vacation or in the day off from a precise labour mode and habitual everyday conditions, cannot simply cope with positive emotions overflowing it(him).
Such activity if it(her) to not supervise and to not direct on a reasonable way, not always stops with issjakaniem energy or limitation of time. The twisted legs(foots), the stretched(dragged out) joints, the broken noses - the widespread ending of the harmless entertainments caused by cheerful attitude. And at presence of potentially dangerous subjects or employment(occupations) the heavy traumas connected, for example, in hikes of the day off with games on water, with entertainments fire or sharp subjects are not excluded.
The special place is borrowed(occupied) with similar traumas from young tourists. However the impulsiveness, insufficiently developed braking, small life experience, weak self-criticism and other age features of minors are dangerous not in itself. Only ignoring of these features from organizers and heads of travel leads to that teenagers in an impulse of enthusiasm lift excessive weights, easily take a great interest in excessively high rate, on halts conceive pranks and struggle against application of footsteps and other unsafe receptions. Experts consider(count), that up to 1/4 all cases of a school traumatism from falling occurs(happens) as a result of footsteps *.
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* R.J.Usoskina. The organization of struggle against a traumatism at children., 1969.
On more complex(difficult) travel the negative effect of positive emotions at the some people is shown in sensation of a winged sentiments and belief in limitlessness of the forces which arises after overcoming the next obstacle, for example pass. More precisely - a seeming overcoming. Having reached(achieved) a culmination point of rise, the unbalanced person even perfectly knowing, that descent(release) in mountains is more dangerous than rise, can lose under influence of emotional experience vigilance and make dangerous mistakes(errors). Therefore for good safety it is very important to be able to keep self-control and meaningly to order current of emotional processes.
Whether many misfortunes are brought with the raised(increased) susceptibility of danger of separate persons, to define(determine) difficultly as this quality not always is obvious to associates, and its(his) carrier(bearer), as a rule, does not realize "guilt". Difficultly and consequently, that in a number of accidents it is possible to assume (because of obvious absurd of behaviour of people) presence of any deviation(rejection) in a state of health of victims. If to take for a basis only quantity(amount) of known heavy accidents to which the latent serious illness or an obvious physical defect at the victim they according to for 1968 - 1969, will make about 15 % preceded. The general(common) number of heavy traumas.
The basic ways of decrease(reduction) in the traumatism connected with raised(increased) personal susceptibility of danger, it is possible to consider(count) strengthening(amplification) of the medical control for going in serious travel and improvement of check (the special form of test is necessary) their all-round readiness for transferring marching burdens.
The question costs(stands) not about carrying out of obligatory tests for those who wishes to be engaged in tourism (besides other, now there is no the exact list of qualities which everyone should possess specializing in this or that kind of tourism, a concrete technique of test), and about prohibition of participation in hikes with the raised(increased) risk to the people having greater(big), than at others, susceptibility of danger.
Gradualness and sequence in complication of the routes, incorporated in a basis of classification specifications on tourism and rules of the organization of amateur tourist travel, in many respects allow to solve a problem(task) of safety as in time, necessary on purchase of experience in rather easy(light) routes, the traveller is on eyes of comrades, tourist section, the маршрутно-qualifying commission, collective of physical culture. They also define(determine) its(his) personal suitability to hikes of the raised(increased) complexity. Unfortunately, the formal right of the tourist to participation in a hike of the certain category of complexity sometimes admits sufficient for its(his) inclusion in the group going on rather risky route where on personal qualities this person to go, certainly, would not follow.
About a role of exhaustion. Its(his) influence - the temporary factor which only periodically raises(increases) susceptibility of the tourist of danger. However at long overfatigue occurrence of residual, chronic deviations(rejections) from norm(rate) and then gross infringements of safety of travel are probable is possible(probable),
In quantity indicators to consider exhaustion as the reason of a traumatism hardly. On the one hand, with exhaustion tourists often confuse its(his) easy(light) form - weariness, and to another, having got used to overloads, they do not notice exhaustion there where it is and in a heavy stage. It is preliminary possible to consider(count), that as one of the reasons of heavy traumas the exhaustion appears at least in 1/4 accidents on routes.
In marching conditions each person can feel exhaustion sooner or later. It leads to delay of reactions, to occurrence of erroneous actions or (in most easy(light) case) to necessity of additional attention and the control over the actions which were carried out as though automatically (for example, actions grebju on a raft or delivery of a cord on the insurance) earlier. In necessity of an additional pressure(voltage) of brain system one of dangers of exhaustion also is covered. Distracting on superfluous efforts for the control over "mechanical" activity, the tourist weakens(easies) vigilance. Its(his) readiness for emergency action sharply falls.
The exhaustion essentially reduces attention. The tired person can concentrate during only insignificant time, and the periods of a relaxation at it(him) are tightened(delayed). More strongly it(he) is influenced also with the factors involuntarily distracting attention.
Passage to second half of day of difficult sites coincides with the culmination of exhaustion of tourists when the most expressed changes in functions of the tired person - deterioration of a susceptibility to external razdrazhiteljam and abilities to concentrate the attention, the slowed down thinking, emotional instability, downturn of coordination and force of movements are shown. Not casually at afternoon o'clock it is necessary more than 50 % of daily average "norm(rate)" of traumas, though actually running time during this period of day ogranichenno.
For successful struggle against exhaustion it is necessary to know its(his) reasons. The cores from them - small trenirovannost participants of travel; the excessive route, too intense train diagram, deterioration of weather. Infringement of a mode of day, especially late rises and movement in darkness promote fast exhaustion a untimely and insufficient feed(meal), nedosypanie. Besides an excessive pressure(voltage) of sight, delay of speed and strengthening(amplification) of monotony of movement, such infringement of a mode inevitably breaks a rhythm of biological activity of rest of the person, connected with alternation of day and night, that, in turn, also strengthens exhaustion.
To the exhaustion considerably(much) raising(increasing) susceptibility of danger of accident, the sensation of weariness precedes. The head of group should not neglect this natural signal, and is obliged to take precautionary measures for reduction of exhaustion;
To stop group on off-schedule rest, to organize reception legkousvaivaemoj and the vitaminized food (for example/glucose with vitamin C).
If conditions of safety allow, it is expedient to change rate or a line of movement, to distract people the singing, interesting conversation, t. e. To try to reduce monotony of a way. Therefore professional suitability of the instructor on a scheduled route should be defined(determined) also by skill to remove weariness from tourists-beginners, skill correctly to borrow(occupy) them whenever possible with active actions on a small halt, not transforming it(him) in passive weakening rest after which time for mobilization of forces is required.
DANGER OF INEXPERIENCE
Inexperience of tourists includes insufficient general(common) and special physical preparation, absence of clearness and co-ordination of movements, marching skills, skills in field works, weak representation about possible(probable) dangers. Differently, at inexperience absence of practical experience is combined with theoretical illiteracy and weak tactical thinking.
Inexperience can result(bring) unfortunately even in conditions of the most simple hike.
So, according to for two years of 86 % of heavy traumas " the Tourist of the USSR ", 12 % - on travellers III and II categories, 2 % - on first-rank sportsmen, candidates for the master and masters of sports on tourism (is necessary on beginners and znachkistov at relative density of these groups in tourism accordingly 94,2, 5,5 and 0,3 %). Analyzing these figures, it is necessary to remember, that yet easy(light) traumas - the most mass at beginning(starting) tourists, and also that arresters and masters in comparison with beginners always have raised(increased) level of complexity of travel and objectively more dangerous obstacles in routes here are not considered.
The high number of accidents with not skilled people is characteristic, certainly, not only for tourism.
So, according to the Central institute of traumatology and orthopedy of Ministry of Health of the USSR *, as a whole for sportsmen of various specialization it is characteristic, that from received the sports trauma of the master of sports is made with 3,7 %. First-rank sportsmen - 7,8 %, sportsmen II and III categories - 52,5 % and beginners - 36 %.
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* 3. Mironov, L.Heifetz. Preventive maintenance of traumas in sports and the pre-medical help. FiS, 1966.
What gives experience to the traveller? First, experience warns, in general, quite clear mistakes(errors) badly prepared, few the knowing, inept people who have not learned yet to adapt to all requirements of a field surrounding; secondly, it(he) allows to avoid mistakes(errors) because of uncertainty, sensation of alarm, feeling of fear for a possible(probable) oversight. Beginners at times try to suppress such uncertainty resoluteness of actions or even ignoring of the established(installed) security measures, that only complicates position.
Experience allows to feel confidently in a field surrounding at adverse influence of an environment (a cold, a wind, lack of oxygen), the nobility when it is possible to not pay attention to them, and, hence, to save the charge of nervous energy.
The skilled traveller moves, guided, overcomes obstacles, so to say, automatically and with the least expense of forces therefore on the same route has in a stock of much more energy, than its(his) less prepared comrade, and is more protected from possible(probable) danger.
Smaller susceptibility to a traumatism at the skilled tourist speaks also other in comparison with the beginner a degree of concentration of attention (the last is understood as readiness to react on external razdrazhitel on a route). It(he) can perceive simultaneously easily both own acts, and surrounding conditions and to operate(work) depending on a situation.
The attention of the beginner, especially at passage of sites of the raised(increased) complexity or deterioration of weather, appears frequently disseminated(absent-minded). At it(him) the involuntary attention which is involved with intensive external influences on a route, for example a roar of an avalanche, impacts of a wind, shine of a lightning becomes aggravated. In these cases concentration of any attention - the most important in similar conditions (for example, in relation to a sound signal of the head, otmashke with going ahead of a vessel, to easy(light) trembling of a cord by which the insurance of comrade on a rocky site is carried out) decreases.
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Complexity of routes or quality of equipment in itself yet do not define(determine) danger of travel. Technical literacy and tactical experience allow many tourist groups to overcome successfully high mountains and almost komfortabelno to spend the night under protection of walls from snow bricks or in a snow hut. A photo 1, a photo 2.
As a rule, external distracting factors (for example, in group) easily destroy extraneous conversation stability of any attention of the beginner and cause time(temporary) braking reaction to really necessary signal that conducts to inactivity or the wrong action promoting occurrence of accident.
For development(manufacture) of steady any attention special educational employment(occupations) with beginning(starting) tourists are desirable. Simultaneously it is impossible to forget and about maintenance of high conscious discipline in the groups, excluding superfluous noise, fussiness, a disorganization on a route.
One of possible(probable) kinds of training of attention can be employment(occupations) on development of observation. A trainee give the task to observe for surrounding nature and conduct them on short (3 - 5 km), but to complex(difficult) enough route which is passing(is taking place) on a cross-country terrain. Then the head sets some unexpected questions (what breeds of trees or what traces of animals met on a route, how many time the route crossed tracks, in what party(side) the wind blew) and suggests to draw kroki districts along a route. On the written answer limited time (5 - 8 minutes) is allocated(removed). Questions can have more special character and demand attention to narrower circle of objects that should be informed by the trainer before employment(occupation). For complication of training a route pass(take place) in fast rate or with heavy backpacks.
The similar way of development(manufacture) of concentration of attention will demand from beginners of a significant pressure(voltage) and efforts, especially at introduction of any artificial handicapes, but at regular application, possibly, can serve as effective enough means of training of tourists to correct distribution of the attention and will help(assist) to lower their susceptibility of danger.
At the same time it is impossible to forget about real abilities of the person: experience shows what simultaneously to observe more than for 2 - 3 objects in tourism it is practically impossible. If with a high degree of a pressure(voltage) to watch(keep up) even only one object (for example, being on the insurance) already through 15 - 20 minutes, as a rule, are weakened(easied) attention and simultaneously sensitivity distracting factors raises(increases). In such cases it is necessary to change often the observer, to work with the doubler or to alternate(interleave) objects of supervision between tourists because conscious switching of attention always demands a smaller pressure(voltage), than its(his) long concentration.
By the way, one more advantage of the skilled tourist before not skilled - skill if necessary to collect the attention " in a fist " and when it is necessary - to weaken(easy) it(him) and to create a pause for rest. It is important to know, when and where is admissible to switch the attention. The skilled tourist can at times and on a complex(difficult) site simultaneously to do(make) two business(affairs) - one, the obstacles connected with overcoming, and the second, on the contrary, distracting from it(him). And not always the last will hinder primary activity. While distracting actions - whether it be memoirs, conversations, a song - do not cause braking the nervous centers serving the basic work of the tourist, their influence can be only positive. In fact these extraneous business(affairs) remove monotony of loading (for example, monotonous movement under a backpack), represent itself as the internal exciting factor and by that positively influence working capacity of the traveller, not weakening(easying) its(his) attention to a safety.
Definition of the concrete importance in accidents of factors which compose concept "inexperience", is complicated by that they, as a rule, happen are closely bound: to low physical preparation technical illiteracy usually accompanies, to ignorance of danger and ways of protection against them - tactical feebleness. As a whole the main reasons of a traumatism are covered in insufficient technical and tactical preparation of tourists. It(she) causes almost half of all cases of heavy traumas on routes. Insufficient physical preparation is characteristic for 30 % of similar traumas.
Ignorance of techniques or their wrong execution(performance) because of weak possession of an arsenal of means dangerously in big and small.
To take, for example, falling. Tourists (as well as other sportsmen) at falling should accept automatically a necessary rack and so to group the body, to not receive a serious trauma. And about distribution of such traumas speaks the fact, that, according to the first help of Moscow, 71 % of all accidents in streets of city it is connected with falling, not dependent on transport.
The inability apply a technique in tourism can to lead to accident as speak, " on an equal place ". Such incidents quite often testify to bad physical preparation and ignorance of elementary security measures.
As example the heavy trauma (fracture of spinal column) received by one of trained on seminar on preparation of public instructors of tourism in Kalininskoj of area can serve. On morning zarjadke two girls carried out pair exercise: costing(standing) a back to each other and having linked behind hands, did(made) serial rises of the partner at an inclination forward. One of girls has lost balance and, falling, has carried away behind itself the girlfriend who has hit a head about the ground.
To avoid similar, during practical training it is necessary to study(investigate) 2 - 3 standard positions of correct falling. So, if the tourist has slipped and falls on the right side it(he) should press quickly to a breast a chin, bend knees, extend hands forward. At a touch to the ground to transfer(carry) weight of a body on the right buttock, to make perekat to right lopatke and whenever possible more strongly to strike by the ground the extended right hand. At falling it is necessary to be grouped quickly also back - to bend knees and to pick up a chin to a breast, and having lowered(omitted) on buttocks to be bent in a back and to make smooth perekat back. To study these positions is better in structure of group on a beach or a lawn with a dense herbage.
Technical and organizational preparation cannot guarantee safety if travellers have neglected tactical preparation. Any serious omission in tactical knowledge, t. e. In development of the plan of a hike, its(his) schedule, in a choice of a correct line of movement on district, sharply raises(increases) an opportunity of accident.
In the winter of 1963 five doctors and students of the Moscow medical high schools have gone from station the Gray Mask (Komi ASSR) aside ridges of Polar Urals Mountains. To travel solid technical training has been done: the tent, the furnace are specially designed, taken narty with olenimi skins which should replace on a lodging for the night in tent under and sleeping bags. However tactically physicians to a hike were not ready and, knowing, that will not let out(not release) them on a route, have concealed the plan from friends on institute and from the маршрутно-qualifying commission of city club of tourists.
First half of way have passed(have taken place) successfully. Doing(making) at a fair wind on a firm ice crust some tens kilometers a day, skiers have reached(achieved) pass Hojla and, having waited two-day snowstorm, send(have left) on east, priobskie, slopes of Urals Mountains. Here also tactical miscalculations of group were showed: the snow in Zauralye has appeared absolutely other quality - friable, deep, without any hint on nastovuju korku. Tourists had to throw narty so, and to lose a warm lodging for the night. Failing above kolenej during a snow on insufficiently wide (taken for a rigid snow) skis, they did not do(make) now and 10 km a day. Products came to an end, people merzli, ran into apathy. Control term of returning to work and in institutes has been broken for a week. Friends gone on sketchy data restored possible(probable) variants of a way of tourists; from Vorkuta and Salekhard send(have left) saving groups; above Polar Urals Mountains turned search planes.
All has terminated safely: the exhausted tourists have reached station the Polar lights. Safely, short of experiences native and close, a downtime of tens people torn off from the basic work, expenses for the technics(technical equipment) thrown on rescue gone.
Other dangerous consequence(investigation) tactical maloopytnosti, to be exact, topographical illiteracy of tourists - cases of loss of orientation. If they occur(happen) in densety populated places or there where there is a branched out network of tourist контрольно-saving items(points), business is limited to one-two days of wanderings and searches.
However not always loss of orientation comes to an end so simply. Cases when lost the way gibli for famine or, having directed on a false track, left on dangerous, impassable sites are known and were broken. It is possible to consider(count), that not less than 5 % of heavy traumas on travel are consequence(investigation) of weak orientation to districts. Percent(interest) of easy(light) damages and especially diseases still above. Here one of typical cases.
Per 1967 tourists from Makeyevka have directed to travel to area East Sajana. The group had no neither the necessary card(map), nor precise representation about a forthcoming route. Anybody did not have an experience of taiga hikes. Therefore already in the first days, having got in riverheads Durgomzhi, makeevtsy have lost orientation and more than weeks unsuccessfully turned in area of the rivers Ija, Hojto and Oka. Soon the collective was broke into separate subgroups. As a result two were lost and, straying on a taiga, casually send(have left) to Oka where they were picked up by local residents on motor boats. Remained (among them was two patients) tested sharp undereating, at the some people the dystrophy has begun, but absence of practical skill to live and field conditions did not allow them to take advantage of fishing, gathering of mushrooms, berries, wild-growing edible plants. In 10 days tourists send(have left) to the unknown river. Having convinced what to construct even the elementary raft it(him) not on forces (it has rescueed(saved) it(him) a life for ahead there were impassable thresholds for beginners), makeevtsy have gone(send) on foot along the river. Here they were found out by the tourist-fisherman from Perm, It(He) fed some days and othazhival to mountain-travellers, and then has alloyed them up to Sarama.
So, because of ignorance of area of travel, because of bad preparation, тактико-technical illiteracy and absence of the elementary practical skills which have grown out small experience of people, hardly was have not suffered 11 person.
As questions obshchefizicheskoj preparations are well enough developed in sports, and its(her) substantive provisions primenimy to tourism, it is possible to not stop on them. It is necessary to note only, that regular, all-the-year-round physical preparation for tourists is important also as means zakalivanija and acclimatization. During intensive trainings and long (physical activities during the premarching period in an organism of the person arises and lack of oxygen (" an oxygen duty(debt) " is compensated). Means, acclimatization after an output(exit) on a route will pass(take place) more without serious consequences, more likely and will temporarily not strengthen susceptibility of danger of accident.
At the same time overdue attempts zakalivanija in conditions of a hike frequently not only are useless, but also harmful.
In 1964 on Pamir in group of the Kharkov sportsmen there was an accident - for two days one of participants of travel has died from a pneumonia. It has appeared, that up to a hike it(he) never seriously was engaged zakalivaniem, and in severe conditions of a camp life has suddenly decided to pour cold water and to be wiped off by a snow. The unprepared organism has reacted to it prostudnym disease which in high mountains has passed in a rapid pneumonia.
And now we shall address to most important of problems of increase of технико-tactical experience of tourists and the closest our theme - to training to security measures.
Basic installation of such training consists in that safety issues were inseparable from technics(technical equipment) and tactics of a concrete kind of tourism, and observance of security measures was not any addition to the requirements shown to the tourist as the expert in the kind of sports. In other words, that " good travel " meant as well " travel safe ".
Realization of this principle begins during preparation of tourist organizers and heads of hikes, in curricula and which programs theoretical employment(occupations) on the themes connected with security measures on tourist routes are stipulated. However it is not necessary to be limited only to lectures, t. e. Reception of the information on kinds of dangers. It is necessary, that the logic judgement trainees of a concrete actual material on security measures occured(happened) constantly. The Device bivuaka " Is desirable in any theme of employment(occupations), whether it be " Equipment of the tourist ", " Receptions of explaining the ground " or ", to include the questions connected with preventive maintenance of a traumatism, and to explain, than not repaired equipment, inability to be guided are dangerous, for example, poor-quality and in advance on. To the local subjects, incorrectly chosen place of statement of tent in mountains.
Thus it is necessary to aspire, that figurative representation of danger at the person was combined with simultaneous mental reproduction of ways of protection against it(her) and caused the actions promoting elimination of danger.
By the isolated consideration of security measures and possible(probable) consequences of their non-observance in memory of trainees impressions which in a real field surrounding will generate more likely fear or feebleness, than readiness to reflect danger can be postponed.
Especially cautious and sensitive it is necessary to be with young tourists. Lectures on safety for them should not turn to demonstration of horrors with naturalistic details and in advance predetermined fatal outcome. Beginners need to be given the analysis of accidents on travel, instead of frightening and to anything positive not learning(teaching) list of failures(accidents). And to give with precise accent(stress) on safety measures, which could (be they in time are accepted) to prevent misfortune or to reduce a loss caused by them.
It is necessary to be close(attentive) to psychological effect which is made on not skilled person with stories about the most terrible natural dangers on routes. Skilled travellers know, that snos a pressure of water not zastrahovannogo a cord of the tourist at a ferry through a powerful mountain stream with abrupt falling a channel or hit in an avalanche give the person not many chances of a life.
But if the misfortune nevertheless happens, it is impossible to neglect and last chance of rescue. Therefore beginners should be learned(taught) also to receptions of deduction on a surface of an avalanche by means of swimming movements, to ways of preservation of a life in a water stream or under a layer of a snow with what problematic these receptions and ways were. And the main thing that it is necessary to speak the person about the mountain river and an avalanche: " Make everything that in it(her) to not get! "
Theoretical employment(occupations) on safety are necessary for combining with practical training on district where the tourist could observe of actions of more skilled comrades and imitate them at reproduction of the actions connected with the prevention(warning) and liquidation of "emergency" conditions.
During employment(occupations) it is necessary to impart to tourists certain " protective reaction ", t. e. To train them to carry out those or other techniques in quite reliable way and not only personally to avoid dangerous positions, but also to be ready to possible(probable) mistakes(errors) of other participants of group. Unfortunately, such representation about security measures will not always be coordinated(agreeed) with practice: many tourists count that their comrades will be always exact in the actions.
All educational process at seminars, gathering, at schools of tourist skill should be constructed so that to bring up at listeners firm belief in unalterability of safety rules. On any more either less long seminar or gathering it is necessary to complete saving group, to create fund of saving equipment, to allocate the instructor responsible(crucial) for safety ("nachspasa"). All outputs(exits) on training employment(occupations) should be registered scrupulously the person on duty with the instruction(indication) of control terms of returning, and infringements of safety rules to be done(made) by a subject of indicative discussion. Practical employment(occupations) on any theme are necessary for spending only at full maintenance of all safety requirements.
It is necessary to remember, that the indifferent attitude(relation) to safety issues on trainings generates at tourists representation about dozvolennosti infringements, brings up irresponsibility and the thoughtless attitude(relation) to the valid dangers.
The certain advantage(benefit) is brought with special instructions about security measures (them it is necessary to supply all tourists, and not just listeners of seminars or gathering). It is recommended to include a brief information on possible(probable) dangers In an instruction in hikes and instructions(indications) on preventive maintenance of a traumatism. Concrete advice(councils) and rules of behaviour on a route should borrow(occupy) the main place. The instruction should be laconic, and requirements to duties of participants of travel on a safety - categorical. In the form of direct interdictions it is necessary to specify inadmissibility of bathing without the permission of the instructor, the uses of spirits, single circulation and t. Item
For creation of original "safety factor" in some cases it is useful to go on notorious (but controllable) overloads of trainees or to put them (at obligatory secure) in the conditions close to dangerous. So, by preparation for winter travel, for a guarantee of happy end at casual damage of equipment on a route, it is recommended to fulfil various ways of emergency lodgings for the night in advance. In a training hike of the day off tourists put aside tents, furnaces, sleeping bags and will organize educational bivuaki in barriers, in snow huts, holes and caves.
During training tourists-miners and mountain skiers it is necessary to fulfil receptions of correct falling and the subsequent self-detention on abrupt slopes. That who specializes in water travel, skills of the "free" reference(manipulation) with water elements which are got, in particular, are necessary at navigation in clothes and at deliberate overkiljah.
In 50th years in tourist camp " Torpedo " was new-_С_¬«у«) the order at which all tourists before departure in water hikes across the Top Volga and its(her) inflows passed(took place) a number(line) of tests is established(installed). One of them conditionally referred to as working off of technics(technical equipment) of rowing. Actually tourists in bathing suits (them warned, that they can "splash") by two-pair boats sailed from coast on 15 - 20 m. Then, on a signal spending employment(occupation), the instructors was on one by boats, rose on boards and, sharply having shaken boats, overturned them. Having emerged after artificial overkilja, tourists transported vessels and oars to coast as them learned(taught) on earlier lead theoretical employment(occupations). Safety of test was guaranteed by on duty boats with saving means and swimmers, and also insignificant (no more than 2) depth of the river in the place chosen for employment(occupation).
At training it is necessary to try, that the certain circle of skills under the safety precautions has been practically mastered by all without exception by tourists. The minimum of practical skills and skills which are necessary for everyone, make: correct application of the self-insurance, work with a cord, imposing of a bandage on a wound, skill to do(make) artificial breath and indirect massage of heart to transport victims on improvised means.
For the best mastering by a material it is necessary to use various methodical receptions. Especially interesting opportunities open in a учебно-training hike, at the decision of specific targets real, instead of conditional travel. It is possible, for example, during movement on a route to spend competitions (relay race) to transportation of "victim" by various ways on the big distance, and on bivuake so to organize work that each tourist carried out that it(he) while does(makes) badly.
For working off of actions on salvage operations have well proved educational alarms, application of a game method.
Employment(Occupation)-game is preceded with the certain preparation of all structure of gathering (seminar), the organization of saving group, creation of fund of emergency equipment and maintenance at trainees of moral readiness for rendering assistance suffering(bearing) disaster. For greater plausibility of incident a theme of employment(occupations) in the educational schedule in advance do not specify. On the contrary, dramatized(staged) "state of emergency" as though breaks the curriculum.
As concrete occasion for the organization of search and rescue works ostensibly received distress signal or the broken(disturbed) control term of returning 1 - 2 tourists who are being a rate of planned game can serve. In connection with the announcement of an emergency condition "nachspas" immediately starts the organization of search and the help: allocates advanced and auxiliary groups, reserve group, provides delivery of necessary equipment, stipulates the plan of movement, a communication facility, control terms and items(points).
Depending on local conditions and time allocated(removed) on employment(occupation) (not less than 3 - 4 hours) tourists spend selective, linear or ploshchadnoj search, then render first aid and transport "victims". Game by detailed analysis of actions of each of "rescuers" at presence of all tourists comes to the end.
Practical employment(occupations) on technics(technical equipment) of tourism with accent(stress) on safety allow to achieve such formation of skills which integrally would include receptions and the movements which are meeting the requirements of safe passage of a route in impellent ensemble. But this way of training yields good results when safety requirements are regulated by working-class movements. So, at rowing on a kayak or management of a raft (and combinations of movements) allow to pass correct working-class movements in the best way all obstacles in the river to move quickly and with the least expense of forces. Simultaneously the same movements allow to pass(take place) a route without accident. Other example - rise on an abrupt snow slope in the way " on three steps " when movement is impossible without correct work (support) ledorubom, and the same work is the basic action for good safety the tourist-miner.
The another matter when observance of safety rules does not depend on working-class movements of the tourist and demands realization of additional actions, subjectively, probably, "superfluous" and stirring(preventing) to the basic movements. So, application of a safety cord, using a life jacket or mittens on the insurance directly do not facilitate movements of the tourist. On the contrary, they cause an additional expense of energy, hold down movements or reduce comfort of travel. In these cases it is necessary to develop(produce) independent skills that the tourist automatically, despite of seeming inconveniences, made the actions providing its(his) safety and groups. Here it is necessary to create such proof communication(connection) in nervous activity of the tourist which easily would generate in that sequence in what events and the facts repeatedly repeated during its(his) training.
In other words, the purpose of preparation on the sections connected with safety of travel, consists in that the actions caused by security measures, joined in a dynamic stereotype of behaviour of the tourist. It is possible(probable), when such actions are represented a trainee not as something independent, and as the integral element of travel. Also are represented constantly and persistently, without discounts for reserve of educational conditions, for training character of employment(occupations) or simplicity of technical skill. At such influence the traveller in due course cannot make actions in other sequence, than it(he) has got used. So, for the tourist-miner there is the need(requirement) caused by a habit, pristegivanie a carbine to a safety cord, a check of the fastened units, putting on of mittens before descent(release) on a cord. As mechanically, vozvratjas from hunting, unloads a gun before leaving a wood to comrades, the skilled tourist-таежник.
It is clear, that training to security measures is not similar to training, for example, to navigation which, as is known, is irreversible skill in human life and allows it(him), once having learned to float, and after a long-term break successfully to keep on water. Knowledge and the skills connected with preventive maintenance of accidents, require the control and a reinforcement as the certain developed(produced) sequence of actions is carried out correctly only until the conditions which have caused it(her) are kept.
In this plan it is useful to draw more to sources of danger attention of those who already has experience of travel behind shoulders. It needs to be kept first of all at them in memory consciousness of danger about which they, having got used to it(her), forget. In this case (as opposed to work with beginners) it is possible to address more safely to the facts of a traumatism in tourism to show sad consequences of non-observance of security measures more evidently.
One more effective means of decrease(reduction) in a traumatism and check of conformity of readiness of tourists to safety requirements - so-called control specifications. In a number of kinds of tourism they already exist (for example, in speleoturizme and partially - in mountain and water).
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The forward helmsman has recoiled back, greb has helplessly hung in mid-air - impact to not pass any more. In a second powerful jets ka-ХС_б will pile a raft on a rock. Here that the instant of confusion and the miscalculation cost to travellers at an input(entrance) in a threshold. A photo.
Universal introduction uniform, concretized by kinds of movement and categories of complexity, control specifications would allow to define(determine) before travel a degree of development of the basic physical qualities of tourists (force, endurance, dexterity, balance), their technical training.
Now at release of group on a route at its(her) members check only a degree of theoretical knowledge, acquaintance under the literature with the planned area of travel, conformity of the previous experience (under shown information(inquiries)) to a planned route more often. But objectively to judge about physical and technical training of these people during the given concrete moment can nobody; even they in spite of the fact that have lead before travel some training outputs(exits). Quantity indicators of specifications would be here very opportunely.
Summing up, it is necessary to emphasize, that the insufficient level of experience of tourists and especially cases of discrepancy between readiness of travellers and complexity of routes are one of the most widespread reasons of a traumatism.
Increase of experience will allow to reduce negative influence of many factors which temporarily raise(increase) susceptibility of tourists to accident up to a minimum. Experience as experts speak, forms in brain system of people the original "block" intended for the insurance from any unexpectedness. Supporting(maintaining) this block in an on duty condition, the traveller at a dangerous situation automatically includes necessary impellent systems. Thus, experience warns against wrong acts and helps(assists) to transfer(carry) easily difficulties of hikes, it(she) forms at the person on dangerous sites vigilance and readiness for emergency action.
PANIC CONDITION
Recalling the circumstances preceded this or that trauma on travel, victims often recollect an original failure in thinking and are surprised an obvious illogicality of the behaviour led accident. Comrades on group, from observed for happened and assisted, also usually mark(celebrate) strange confusion, an abnormal mental condition which was during the moment of incident at the originator of misfortune.
Certainly, the similar abnormal condition is far not always - we shall name its(his) panic - precedes accident. There can not be, for example, a confusion before such transient events, as break of a cord or explosion of a kerosene stove. And still more than for 1/6 all facts of a heavy traumatism it is necessary to ascertain the certain time(temporary) shifts in mentality of travellers. And if to consider, that such abnormalities in behaviour of people occur(happen) in critical conditions, frequently without witnesses and are not fixed in memory of victims their role will increase in causality of a tourist traumatism even more.
What is the panic condition? Confusion, fear, confusion, loss of the control over the acts and ideas. Displays of a panic on travel are various.
The person, zastignutyj unawares approaching danger, can freeze with horror. Under literary descriptions much know confusion of the person who has suddenly collided(faced), for example, with an adder or a bear; the fear holds down all members, the cold perspiration covers a body, to a throat the nausea rises, in opinion of grows turbid. The person wishes to run and is not capable to make to a step. It(he) was dumbfounded. Even an instant - also there can come(step) a faint. At a meeting with wild animals it is not too dangerous: most likely, the snake or a bear, not having caused a harm, there and then will leave away. Worse when as the reason of horror such "inanimate" phenomena, as a rockfall serve, an avalanche, a water stream.
The catalepsy and sharp block of acts on water are fraught with the most pitiable consequences. The death from break of heart at absence of water in lungs - is those ascertaining of doctors for a significant part sunk in tourist travel. Especially insulting the similar end is represented when for rescue of the person have been taken all measures: on it(him) there was a life jacket, to it(him) have thrown a cord or to it(him;them) the boat has directed to the aid, and it(he), appears, already was lost for fear.
Another, so to say, an active kind of display of a panic - the instinctive protective actions made without the control over reason of travellers: prompt(impetuous) flight, a jump aside, shout. Sometimes they benefit and danger help(assist) to avoid: so, the jump aside rescues(saves) from a flying stone. But it is frequent (especially in technical kinds of tourism) the actions accomplished only under influence of a unconditional defensive reflex, lead to opposite result.
The instinctive aspiration of the person who has got at overkile in water, immediately to float to coast contradicts reasonable demands of safety: it is quiet more correctly, on current to row up to a fine place and and which case to not throw a boat. Unfortunately, under influence of a panic so act not all. The same condition repeatedly pushed the groups which have lost on a route orientation, to chaotic throwings in different directions, that only finally misdirected them. Cases when threat of a seeming danger caused so strong time(temporary) defects in thinking of people were marked(celebrated), that they in panic flight threw backpacks, clothes, sleeping bags, than in winter conditions subjected itself to the valid risk serious obmorozheny.
The third display of dangerous confusion - " a silent panic ", or sensation of extreme feebleness, a hopelessness, hopelessness. The person stops resistance and in advance surrenders at discretion - the nature.
Such deep, sharply expressed depression at times reminds suicide. Externally " the silent panic " is not shown so brightly as full catalepsy or prompt(impetuous) flight, - the person continues to carry out automatically time the begun employment(occupation), internally it(he) "grows cold". Sometimes it occurs(happens) literally words, as, for example, at some not skilled tourists, zastignutyh without equipment on a route snowstorm, darkness, a strong wind, in low temperature. Demoralization from such influence happens is so strong, that the person, apparently, loses all protective forces. Whether there will be it(he) is safe, whether will receive obmorozhenie or other trauma - is solved with time and accident. Even diligence of friends at times do not help(assist).
In 1962 on ski travel on Carpathians after several hours of stay per blizzards the tourist has frozen. It(he) has died laying in a sleeping bag, in shelter. At the left and to the right of it(him) there were the comrades helped to it(him). But the victim (it(he) for the first time in a life has got in conditions of a strong wind and low temperatures) has morally surrendered and did not resist to an environment.
Similar it is characteristic not only for winter or especially severe conditions. Lately more and more than researchers come to conclusion, what not inability to float, not cooling or traumas cause very much a plenty of tragedies on water.
From 200 thousand the people annually perishing as a result of sea accidents, about 50 thousand do not go to a bottom simultaneously with the ship. They land in life boats and... Soon perish painful death. Though to die of famine or thirst, it would be required to them to time in some times more.
In what here has put? We shall recollect words of glorified doctor-traveller Alain Bombara, the author of the book " Behind a board at the will ".
" When the ship tonet, seems to the person, that together with its(his) ship there is to a bottom all world; when two boards of a floor leave at it(him) from under legs(foots), simultaneously with them all leaves eg.o courage and weigh its(his) reason. And even if it(he) will find a life boat during this instant, it(he) is not rescueed(saved) yet. Because it(he) fades in it(her) without the movement, struck fallen on it(him) misfortune. Because it(he) already does not live any more. The shrouded night darkness, vlekomyj current and a wind, trembling before a chasm, afraid both noise, and silence, it(he) for any three days finally turns to the deadman.
Victims of legendary ship-wrecks... You were killed not with the sea, you were killed not with famine, you were killed not with thirst! Being shaken on waves under plaintive shouts chaek, you have died of fear ".
The panic condition can be expressed and in other forms. Sometimes they consistently replace each other: having met danger, the person was dumbfounded from unexpectedness, then has instinctively rushed to run, instead of seeing a way out, has run into heavy depression. All this can proceed few seconds or be stretched(dragged out) at long o'clock, depending on specific features of the tourist.
It is important, that at this time the traveller because of sudden infringement of thinking and extreme emotional intensity is seriously subject to danger of accident. And it is not obligatory that which it(he) so was frightened.
Important and that the panic "is infectious": it(she) is easily transferred(transmitted) from one member of group to another and can capture the whole collective. Then under threat bases of existence of tourist group - a collectivism, company, mutual assistance are put.
Any special means from a panic does not exist.
As the panic represents original " the transfer mechanism " via which the individual qualities of tourists raising(increasing) their susceptibility of danger for the prevention(warning) of a panic condition are important sufficient experience are shown, obshchefizicheskaja and special preparation, emotional steadiness, discipline. The same display of forces majeure of the nature will cause in the skilled traveller mobilization of forces, and at the beginner - confusion and fear. For the same reason the probability of a panic is strengthened considerably with unstable or weak type of nervous system, disease, weariness.
It is very essential, whether is available for travellers certain "luggage" of knowledge and skills. If the person is assured(confident), that in emergency conditions or in case of a trauma it(he) can successfully struggle for a life and health, - it(he) already has half won battle with adversely developed circumstances.
The one who is trained at the compelled(forced) ferry to use as improvised plavsredstv a faggot, a backpack or a sleeping bag, wrapped up(turned) in polythene, that, possibly, will not lose self-control on water. Who is able to plant quickly alarm fires with smokes of various color, to cause the help an alarm mirror or in other ways, - not so will easily run into depression of loneliness. Who imagines, that to food there can be many berries, mushrooms, korenja, meat almost all animals, for example rich with fat and used as a delicacy the population of some countries of a frog, the lizard, the snake (including poisonous), caterpillars(tracks), lichinki insects, - that will not be lost for fear of famine.
Therefore, as it was specified above, during training it is necessary to not forget to put tourists in position sufferred disaster (lost the way, lost products and the equipment, having wounded man of comrade) and to force them to search for an optimum output(exit) from a similar situation. Thus it is necessary to give enough attention not only to a call of the help and features of movement of living in misery groups, but also skill to live on the nature: to construct emergency bivuaki, to eat "pasture", in case of need to use silkami, loops, dies, rogatkami for hunting for fine animals.
The greater(big) role in the prevention(warning) and liquidations of a panic condition is played by the head of tourist collective. All at times depends on its(his) will, authority, resoluteness. Many cases when inability of the head to cope with dangerous depression 1 - 2 members of group led to the general(common) confusion, and then and to serious incident on rather simple sites of a route are known. At the same time other groups (including beginners) without any losses left more difficult positions as them it is strong " were held in hands " by the skilled and strong-willed head who is not supposed a panic.
In 1965 the scheduled group of tourists has left from Northern shelter Becho on the same pass of the Central Caucasus that, having overcome it(him), to go down on the Black Sea coast. Weather stood hot, soared. On a track the group has overtaken for the local residents overtaken cattle in Svanetiju. Tired travellers with pleasure have accepted the offer "to throw" their backpacks on a southern slope and easily dressed (the majority in bathing suits) have gone(send) ahead of a caravan. On the approach to the most abrupt place of a снежно-ice slope - " Chicken grudke " the caravan has stopped because of a malfunction, and tourists send away(have left) for pass.
Weather has deteriorated. The cold wind has blown, has tumbled down a snow, and then the hailstones has fallen upon almost naked(exposed) people. The instructor who has admitted(allowed) earlier a gross blunder, having resolved(allowed) movement on a снежно-ice site without corresponding(meeting) clothes and having left things far behind, has understood gravity of created conditions. Having distributed from the backpack everything, that it was possible to put on or than to be covered, it(he) has led tourists further. Three hours people went under a snow, a hailstones and a rain.
The instructor supported(maintained) weak, did not allow them to stop, did not allow strong to increase rate, did not suppose the slightest break in group. Seeing its(his) calmness and confidence, people have believed to it(him) and though in a condition of extreme exhaustion, but without a uniform trauma have reached warm habitation. Anybody from tourists has not received even serious prostudnogo disease.
Depending on circumstances of travel and character of misfortune sometimes happens more expediently to remain on a place and to not undertake attempts to fulfilment under influence of a panic irreversible and up to the end of not thought over actions which can lay down group in the worst conditions. Anyway, during training tourists it is necessary to introduce belief in their consciousness, that if only they have waters a protection against a cold the factor of time has no basic value for preservation of a life sufferred disaster. In fact the person can manage food weeks. However if is available even insignificant obezvozhivanie an organism (loss 2 - 3 l waters) and in conditions of a temperate climate there will be a sharp decrease(reduction) in working capacity, will become dull strong-willed qualities, will appear the general(common) apathy.
Not less important for decrease(reduction) in a traumatism in connection with occurrence of a panic condition education of high strong-willed qualities at all participants of travel. The tourist should not only the nobility as well as why it is necessary to operate(work) in this or that field surrounding, but also to possess persistence, self-control, resoluteness, purposefulness, stability(resistance).
Conditions of carrying out of travel demand repeated, and is frequent also long display of such qualities. For example, in winter hikes in high breadthes when stay of the person at constant strong frosts and severe winds, in conditions bezlesja and " white silence " is possible(probable) only at long preliminary training its(his) will. Therefore strong-willed preparation of tourists in an ideal should be those successfully to form at them useful qualities as constant character traits.
One of ways of development of strong-willed qualities - employment(occupations) with various burdenings. Burdening at tourists, naturally, - a backpack. Supervising and changing weight of a backpack, to it(him;them) it is necessary to approach(suit) not only as to sad, but inevitable necessity of travel, but also as to an original sports shell, to means of strong-willed training. Use in other kinds of sports during the precompetitive period and during trainings the special loading belts(zones), the weighted footwear and clothes, heavier, non-standard throwing shells!
To education of will promote also the organization of one-day hikes with great volume of works, than it is necessary for usual travel, working off of techniques in conditions of exhaustion which have already collected during training, reduction of long trainings-marathons of type " 50 for 12 ", " 100 for 24 ". It is clear, that passage of 50 or 100 km for the limited quantity(amount) of hours should not turn to competition and can be carried out only at the necessary medical control.
Very well training hikes influence formation of the necessary strong-willed qualities at any, including adverse, weather.
Dangerous "automatism" of movements of the person mentioned above at mental confusion is especially often shown at a cold, a wind, a fog, a haze, darkness, at lack of oxygen. In such conditions at the person without due strong-willed qualities clearness of judgements is easily broken, self-criticism is lost, the intuition is lost, processes of thinking are slowed down, coordination of movements is upset.
It is noticed, that in a strong frost it is easier to tourist-skier to continue torenie ski tracks, rise on pass or a file of fire wood on bivuake, than to change the actions. As known polar researcher Robert Skott approved(confirmed): " is not a subject to doubt, that the person in snowstorm should not only support(maintain) blood circulation in the members, but also struggle against onemenija a brain and dullness of mind ". Block of thinking leads to that by inertia at a panic condition the learnt movements though for good safety in concrete circumstances of their travel obviously it would be necessary to stop or replace with others are carried out once.
Speaking about a role of strong-willed qualities as the mortgage of decrease(reduction) in a traumatism among travellers, it is impossible to bypass silence influence of an instinct of self-preservation and its(his) contradiction with strong-willed efforts.
" Will, - wrote And. The M. Setchenov, is an active party(side) of reason and the moral feeling, operating movement in the name of this or that and is frequent counter to an instinct of self-preservation ". But whether always it is necessary to go counter to an instinct of self-preservation?
At the soldier, going to fight, should be an instinct of self-preservation. But it(he) suppresses with stronger consciousness of a civic duty. The same occurs(happens) in consciousness of any other person when it(he) with risk for own life assists suffering(bearing) disaster.
Motives of suppression of an instinct of self-preservation can be and others. For example, to achieve a victory by all means or to show opportunities of the person, the sports purposes. So, William Uillis, not time made risky oceanic navigations on single yachts and rafts around of globe, saw the creative certificate(act) in which it(he) most full feels itself(himself) as the person on the travel and approves(confirms) " greatness and freedom of human spirit ".
In 1969 the Soviet climber Konstantin Kletsko has carried out downhill racing on skis from top of Lenin peak. The sportsman has answered a question on danger of descent(release), that " main, without exaggeration, danger of death is a falling... Here without ledoruba, climbing cats and an insuring cord... Practically to be late it is impossible... I repeated all time about myself: " Only keep, if you wish to live ". Later the Japanese mountain skiers managed to make successful downhill racing from the highest top of the world of Chomolungma.
Both that and another, at all desire to secure a way and the accepted safety measures, nevertheless have been lead by a principle " keep, if you wish to live! ". That is was experiment, a record, the sports feat which is based high personal physical and morally-strong-willed qualities, excellent(different) long-term trenirovannosti, irreproachable possession of technics(technical equipment) of the given kind of sports. And whether many such sportsmen, as well as those who has overcome on a raft or in a kayak Silent or Atlantic ocean, was alloyed on verhovjam Katun, Bartanga or has passed(has taken place) on skis long routes through North Pole, ridges of Polar Urals Mountains or Chukotka? Hundreds. The greatest - thousand. However examples of their fearlessness and courage, skill to suppress instincts and to live "not looking back" on danger draw attention of millions beginners in tourism, cause imitation, copying.
Sometimes it is necessary to hear, how an instinct of self-preservation, in a counterbalance to good force of human reason and will, name low. Words are not present, choosing between rational behaviour and instinctive, it is necessary to prefer the first, certainly. But it is very important, that motives and the promptings making a moral and intellectual basis of will to a victory, were worthy prinosimyh victims.
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Liquidation of consequences of tourist "ship-wreck" on the river Kazyr. In an emergency it is very important to not panic, to not lose belief in and comrades, to not aggravate objective danger with own fear. A photo.
It is possible(probable), when the person is firm in the belief, and means of its(her) achievement, the certain experience has clearnesses of an object in view. And if the traveller is not skilled, confused in the desires, is not informed on the sizes of imminent danger, - whether it is necessary then unconditionally to exclude from an arsenal of the means directed on reduction of accidents, congenital need(requirement) of self-defense? Possibly, no.
It is impossible to forget and about breadth of action of an instinct of self-preservation. In fact it(he) works not only when the person, obzhegshis, draws aside a hand from a fire or exposes it(her) forward at sudden falling.
Travel, t. e. Change of habitual conditions and moving to a unfamiliar place, already causes in the some people negative reaction - oppressive alarm, melancholy, anxiety. It is More than that, any person if it(him) alone (in loneliness we listen to " an internal voice " more attentively) to transfer(carry) let in amazingly beautiful, but a unknown place, originally, will test involuntary feeling of the vulnerability, feebleness. This quite clear display of one of the parties(sides) of the mentioned instinct: in fact in severe struggle for existence once it was important to our primogenitor to establish(install) first of all harmlessness of the new phenomenon, safety of a unfamiliar place. Only having got used to new conditions, having convinced of its(her) neutrality and groundlessness of alarm, we start to test pleasure from dialogue with new, interesting, beautiful.
In practice tourists seldom travel alone, and in group instincts of persons appreciably it suppress with collective opinion., undoubtedly, positively as it is a question of tourist group as voluntary commonwealth of the people incorporated by one purpose and having uniform sights at methods and means of its(her) achievement.
But at times too easy(light) refusal of the "I", the noncritical attitude(relation) to group actions, blind hope for support of comrades lead to undesirable results. Participants of group assign the responsibility for the safety to the head, disconnect(switch-off) internal mechanisms of resistance of danger if on it has not followed the special instruction(indication).
Rapid growth of technical arms of mankind, belief in vsesilnost civilizations also impose the print on character of display of an instinct of self-preservation at modern travellers. They sometimes are ready to subcontract entirely the life to means as trusts it(her), for example, the passenger of the bus or the plane. Having lulled blind belief in technics(technical equipment) congenital need(requirement) of self-defense, such person, having behind shoulders the gun (but never streljav from it(him)), serenly sends to a taiga or, not being able to float, gathers in a lasting many days water hike, counting(expecting) only for reliability of a life jacket.
The basic means of an aggravation at going on a route of an instinct of self-preservation are the educational actions described above raising(increasing) experience of people by their acquaintance to possible(probable) dangers on travel. It is impossible at the same time to dismiss finally and such "means" of a safety of beginners, as fear.
Fear - certainly negative emotion, a condition humiliating and unworthy the person. The fear takes away from it(him) such advantages as mind, the determination, common sense, causes confusion, holds down will and pushes on irreparable acts.
... The Group of beginners rises on zasnezhennomu to a slope. They are happy(enough), that the deep friable snow at last was replaced by a firm ice crust. Now imagine, that tourists suddenly knew that under legs(foots) at them ready to be broken off(become torn) from limiting pressure(voltage) " a snow board " - one of the most terrible and artful versions to " white death ". Reaction of the people captured by sudden fear, can lead to vanity, instinctive flight, to the valid overload and podrezke a slope and is the reason shoda avalanches. Means, the fear as is dangerous, as well as danger? No.
The fear not is also knowledge of danger. At first it is necessary to receive data on threat, that then as consequence(investigation) of the developed situation, has arisen feeling of fear. But if the mentioned tourists had necessary data on features of a mountain relief and a snow cover, about communication(connection) of a strong ice crust on abrupt slopes with lavinoobrazujushchimi factors, they simply would not go(send) on a wrong way. There would be no on a route of a dangerous site, negative emotions, a probability of accident.
Means, the fear is useless? Too is not present.
The fear, alarm, confusion are useless and not necessary, when the traveller has full knowledge of everything that can expect it(him) on a route. Knowing about forthcoming difficulties, about possible(probable) dangers and valuing the life, it(he) in concrete conditions will make the necessary decision and without special experiences. And if data are insufficient or they are not present? Then the fear can appear the important assistant for search of a way to action, the original emergency mechanism temporarily compensating lack of the necessary information.
The fear plays a role of the certain deterrent, a guarding brake for the people who are not having the necessary data on area of travel, about techniques of movement applied there, tactical features of passage of a route.
Certainly, completeness of data - concept relative. Each person more or less subjectively estimates(appreciates) volume of knowledge and the skills necessary for it(him) for the organization of safe travel. Force of experiences, feelings is subjective also. Therefore it is not excluded, that some tourists test alarm and fear there where for them there are no bases, and others, on the contrary, complacently concern to events which should fill with to their serious misgivings. It, however, particulars. Generally the feeling of fear before unknown persons(person) helps(assists) the travellers badly knowing a route, to be closer(more attentive), cautious, circumspect.
Though to speak a panegyric to fear somehow it is inconvenient (where concepts "sports" and "fearlessness") are better combined, but it is necessary to emphasize, what exactly the fear has prevented many accidents with beginners in tourism. The fear before unknown stopped the young researcher, ready to try a unknown berry or a mushroom. The same emotion constrained fans(amateurs) of water travel from for the present insufficiently reconnoitered splana on verhovjam Vakhsh or Pjandzha.
It is not necessary to be afraid of fear. It(he) passes(takes place), when the person gets necessary data on its(his) interesting object or when the need(requirement) of self-preservation is replaced with another, stronger, need(requirement). However if the first guarantees to the person safety, the second - only disappearance of fear. For tourism important, first of all, the first.
DEFINING(DETERMINING) ROLE OF DISCIPLINE AND CONSCIOUSNESS
As the role listed above factors of occurrence of the accidents is significant, to the first in a number(line) of the reasons of a traumatism now there is not weak technical, tactical or obshchefizicheskaja a preparation of tourists, and the low public consciousness, insufficient discipline of their certain part. It is More than that, it is possible to tell, that low discipline of participants of a hike - the most terrible danger in tourism.
Analyzing cases of a traumatism on routes, only in rare from them it is impossible to find one of such elements of an indiscipline, as ignoring of rules of a socialist hostel or the standard norms(rates) of behaviour, neglect the established(installed) rules of the organization of travel, lihacheskoe the attitude(relation) to dangers on a route, adventurism, irresponsibility, neglect the insurance. And in 65 % of heavy traumas low consciousness and bad discipline - one of principal causes of misfortune.
The indiscipline begins often already by preparation for a hike: the choice of obviously complex(difficult) tourists of a route mismatching experience, inclusion in group of the persons(faces) who are not having the rights to participation on given travel, negligence in preparation of group, selection of its(her) equipment, development of a route - all this adjusts(sets up) people on carrying out of travel "at random". Hikes practised here and there without registration of travelling documents, without check of readiness of groups by the маршрутно-qualifying commissions and tourist контрольно-saving services, a postscript of nonexistent experience and attempt to bypass a rule of travel (if only to leave on a route!) deprive with tourists of the effective control and the help from more skilled comrades.
The deceit or ignoring of the tourist organizations turns around for undisciplined travellers self-deception more often. Having refused voluntary services of the маршрутно-qualifying commissions, they, as a rule, do not receive the information necessary to them on area of travel, cannot kvalifitsirovanno check up correctness of the planned train diagrams, do not know about possible(probable) stay near to a route of other tourist groups and cannot adjust with them interaction. Besides the "wild" groups which are being on travel as though " outside of the law ", are compelled(forced) in order to prevent organizational troubles at times even storonitsja people, than in addition put itself in difficult and dangerous position.
Not having the right to count(expect) to the aid from and having taken personally on itself the responsibility for a life of members of group, the head of "savages" makes gross infringement of a public order.
It is impossible to forget and about the moral party(side) of a question - participants of nonformalized group are involved in a collective deceit, it(him) the perverted concepts about a duty(debt) and the responsibility take root. Once the escaped punishment infringement of rules causes in the some people sensation of impunity and dozvolennosti similar. From here one step before deliberate infringement of security measures, before the actions putting group in a hike on a side "state of emergency".
The analysis of heavy traumas evidently confirms it: on a share of infringers of tourist rules, t. e. Participants of "wild" groups and the groups had void routing books and sheets, it was necessary for 2 years in 5 times more accidents, than on participants of correctly issued amateur travel.
Other widespread form of an indiscipline and low consciousness - autocratic change of the approved(confirmed) route (almost 20 % of all accidents). It is a question not of loss of orientation, but about compelled(forced) shode from the planned line because of bad weather, act of nature or illness of the participant of group, namely about deliberate change of a way, and it is frequent aside its(his) complications. Subjective opinion of originators of such offence, as a rule, other. Change of a way usually is based on unwillingness to go on a "boring" site of a route and aspiration to select(elect) more interesting and at first sight more simple and safe route. As a result travellers get on tracks, passes, the rivers for which passage did not prepare, on sites of district on which they do not have necessary data, schemes(plans) and cards(maps). The people who changed a kind of movement and have got in conditions, mismatching are especially close to a dangerous situation to their specific tourist experience. So, on the verge of "state of emergency" there is the pedestrian group which has risked without equipment to reduce a way due to overcoming of not planned снежно-ice pass or, not having experience of the water hikes, solved on an alloy on the unknown taiga river.
Per 1968 three tourists from Petropavlovsk have gone to the pedestrian hike across mountain Altai. As the group did not make out the travel and did not address to anybody for consultation, and conditions of a hike it(she) imagined a route very vaguely. In the first days because of an abundance in mountains of sleet tourists have left a safe line of a scheduled route (which they at first adhered) and have gone(send) the left coast Small Sumulty. Having got tired from walking on heavy tracks, they have decided to change a way of movement and from merge Small and Big Sumulty to float on a raft. Neither the head, nor participants of group did not know character of the river and had no water experience. Therefore, having limited to viewing of a small quiet site of the future alloy, they from an alluvial material (the axe was not) by means of a cord have connected a small raft and, having armed the with the sixth, have thoughtlessly trusted in current. Result of similar adventurism was failure(accident) of practically uncontrollable raft on porozhistom site Sumulty and destruction two person.
Unforeseen replacement of a labour-consuming kind of movement with easier(lighter), for example the pedestrian automobile, also becomes the reason of a traumatism. Similar replacement sometimes practises undisciplined groups on scheduled routes, especially if the last coincide on any piece with proezzhej road. Absence of regular passenger flights, a complex(difficult) structure of a line, its(her) temporary industrial character (road on lesorazrabotki, on the remote building site, to mountain career) aggravate risk of tourists. For separate geographical areas of the country, for example a foothill zone of the Western Caucasus, automobile failures(accidents) with the travellers autocratically used in the middle of a route not adapted for transportation of people by transport (dumpers, timber carrying vessels, trailers), make almost half of all serious accidents.
In 1969 in area of a tourist shelter "Terzijan" one of groups of travellers has autocratically sat down on the passing autotractor with a gun carriage on which the bulldozer has been shipped. On abrupt mountain rise when the driver could not switch speed and the machine(car) under weight of a cargo has gone back, people have started to jump off on road. One of tourists at a jump has hit a head about a tree and, not coming to consciousness, has died.
Year earlier failure(accident) with human victims has occured(happened) on a route between tourist shelters "Naushi" and "Bzhef". Under the approved(confirmed) plan of travel, this piece of a route should be overcome on foot. However the instructor of group and its(her) participants have agreed with the driver of the casual passing machine(car) and on absolutely not not equipped for transportation of passengers ЗИЛе-157 have gone to a way. Crossing in not put place about a shelter "Bzhef" the river Ashe, the machine(car) has got in a hole, by a pressure of water has been overturned and has three times turned over.
The negative attitude(relation) to single circulation was established(installed) in the Soviet tourism in the end of 20th years. It was established(installed) because at that time among tourists-singles was much deklassirovannyh elements, the people who have been torn off from collective, aimless zemletoptatelej (so-called "globodrosterov"). Their long-distance hikes, called round-the-world transitions and intercontinental run, had quite often character of self-advertisement and tickled nerves of the inhabitant.
"... On March, 10th, - one of newspapers per 1925, - continuing round-the-world transition, Akim wrote, son Ivanov, has crossed on an ice on foot Baikal. On the traveller there was a raincoat and short leather trousers. Behind followed sani with understood, sheepskin coats and a quarter of moonshine... "
With singles often there were failures(accidents), accidents, they were missing.
Relapses of single complex(difficult) travel though and it is rare, but meet and now. Most easier on them the green youth movable by a romantic impulse and for some reason or other not found appendix of the forces in organized tourism gives in. At times in an idea on a long-distance record sports hike of the young man result(bring) sincere patriotic promptings:
" I ask you to direct me to single expedition(dispatch) around of cape Horn, - one of tourists, - having read through a note that six-ten-five years' Frensis CHichester on a single yacht has gone through ocean writes, I inform, that I too for a long time prepare for it(this)... Has ended 8 classes, I know geography, astronomy... I wish to argue and I shall prove, that our people surpass others and on travel... And to define(determine), how long the person can move without a dream and rest ".
To prove inexpediency of similar pseudo-competition usually it is easier, than to convince the person to refuse from rather modest 1 - a 2-day's sports hike alone, small individual excursion in mountains or it is simple from radial walk at some o'clock from a place of the general(common) dnevki on a route.
Ignoring rules of the organization of the travel, providing quantity(amount) of participants in group not less than 4, and on complex(difficult) travel - not less than 6 person, infringers do not understand that these norms(rates) are certain by a life, experience of hundreds the tourist groups which have safely left difficult tests, and those senseless victims in which the society paid for doubtful glory of singles-земплепроходцев. And though the number of singles is insignificant, however they and now still give oshchutimuju a share of sad incidents. Anyway, the quantity(amount) of the heavy traumas, one of which main reasons was single circulation, in 1968 - 1969 has exceeded 10 %.
Close to single circulation on the share in accidents (about 15 %) such misconduct, as unforeseen division of groups into the separate parts which are not providing completely the safety.
Autocratic division of groups usually occurs(happens) at incorrectly picked up structure of tourists when they differ on interests, physical preparation, habitual rate of movement, and the instructor or the head of a hike could not balance their force various loading by tasks and in weight of backpacks. Being stretched(being dragged out) on a route, subgroups lose touch among themselves and at deterioration of weather, it appear to loss of orientation or the compelled(forced) stop without necessary equipment and products.
Sometimes crushing of group make for the best survey of any microdistrict, for investigation of approaches to passes, at radial outputs(exits) of a part of tourists aside from the basic string of a route. Not always thus there is an opportunity to complete a subgroup sufficient structure of people and to provide with the necessary equipment (for example if there is only one greater(big) tent and a group sleeping bag). Division of collective in mountain and winter conditions when sharply changing meteorological conditions can prevent to association of subgroups is especially dangerous and force them to settle down on emergency bivuak without warm things, that for unexperienced tourists to equivalently disaster.
In 1969 the group of students and post-graduate students of several capital high schools has left on a route of ski travel of III category of complexity to Kola peninsula. Expecting to pass(take place) for the second day of a way mountain pass Korneskorch, tourists, however, send(have left) with. The lodging for the night only at 10 o'clock and by 15 o'clock, was reached(achieved) with border of a wood. Despite of come evening, skiers continued rise, and because of the weakest organization were broke into three fine groups in 6, 3 and 2 persons. The structure of people in subgroups has appeared casual, neither senior, nor closing have not been appointed(nominated), break between people reached(achieved) hour of movement on skis. Members of subgroups, except for the head was the advanced six, had no kartoshemy area and poorly knew the further route, the order of movement and a place of a meeting. The begun snowstorm, rather usual on Kola peninsula, has deprived with a subgroup of an opportunity of interaction, and in the further each of them, and also broken away from the advanced six and the head who has appeared in loneliness within two day acted on the fear and risk. As the tent was only in the advanced subgroup, the rests had to organize lodgings for the night in a snow which experience they had no. As a result two participants have frozen, and others have received obmorozhenija.
Very serious factor of an indiscipline directly connected with probability of traumas (especially in heavy forms), - absence of safety actions on potentially dangerous sites or there where it(she) is necessary. At least, more than in 1/4 cases of a traumatism absence of the insurance acts as one of the main reasons of misfortune.
Preconditions to that under those or other circumstances on a route there was no insurance, it is possible to name much, and not all of them will depend only on weak discipline, neglect safety measures or Basic refusal of them. Their part is connected with ignorance of possible(probable) means of protection, with inability them to use. But principal causes of accidents because of absence of the insurance are covered nevertheless in insufficient consciousness and low discipline of some participants of travel.
It is known, that the moment of the beginning of the insurance, depends on a level of skill of tourists. But it is impossible to forget, that this group level should be corrected(adjusted) on a degree of readiness and state of health of the weakest member of collective. If though one participant of travel had attributes of shyness and uncertainty, its(his) duty(debt) immediately to ask support and the insurance of comrades, as well as their duty(debt) (first of all - the head of group) to warn such request and, morally not injuring the weakest, immediately to enter the obligatory insurance for all.
Refusal of the organization of the insurance cannot be justified by anything. Especially, if from it(her) health and a life not only the one who has made a decision on refusal, but also comrades, or if its(his) failure depend, falling, a trauma can entail (that happens often) an emergency for group as a whole.
It is not less dangerous fictitious (sometimes named "psychological") the insurance. If at insuring there is no confidence, that it(he) will keep comrade, it is necessary to warn the last about it(this), instead of to be engaged in a deceit, relying on casual happy end.
" It is possible to assume, - one of experts on sports tourism writes, - that in any measure everyone disposes of a life at own risk, but to involve in adventure of other people - a crime " *. We shall add: and to neglect their insurance on dangerous places - too.
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* A.Berman. Travel on skis. FiS, 1968.
Certainly, dangerously the use on a route of alcohol. Communication(connection) of intoxication and accident at anybody do not raise the doubts. In a life, on manufacture, on transport the people excessively consuming alcohol, always cost(stand) more close others to failure(accident) and a trauma. So, according to statistics, in our cities about half of the traumas received in the street, - consequence(investigation) of intoxication of victims. In 1969 36 % of all road and transport incidents in which there were povinny drivers, have occured(happened) because of alcohol.
In tourism influence of alcohol to some extent can be observed in each fifth accident. The Lion's share of similar infringements is brought with hikes of the day off and scheduled tourism on simple routes. In the first the neighbourhood of places piknikovogo the rest, absence of control of routes supposed sometimes and an opportunity of their reduction, and also the fact of the day off negatively affect. On some camp sites at times there are such "tourists" who begin preparation for travel with " evening of friendship " (with alcoholic drinks), from gathering money for "marching" wine, and in a way find ways of an exchange of products on alcohol.
Being in a condition of strong intoxication, the person, as a rule, to move, even without loading and on a simple route, or physically is not capable, or refuses. But, unfortunately, it(he) still has ample opportunities to create threat to the health and health of associates on a halt, bivuake, at excursion.
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Experience - one of the most reliable means whom it is possible to oppose dangers in tourism. But it(he) is got not at once and only after careful training beginners "elements" of the kind of travel chosen by them. A photo.
As a result sometimes there are traumas, incomprehensible for mind(wit) of the sober person and being a consequence of drunk fight on a lodging for the night, unsuccessful attempt on a bet to climb on a support of high-voltage transfer or falling in a state of intoxication from a ladder platform of the second floor of a camp site.
Danger of a traumatism grows with quantity(amount) of the drunk alcohol much more intensively, than an arithmetic progression. Though for tourism of special supervision it was not undertaken, reasonably interestingly to result(bring) the message on 3-rd International congress, devoted traffic safety: it is established(installed), that at the maintenance(contents) in blood of the drunk driver from above 1,5 promille alcohol (t. e. If the driver will drink about a glass of vodka) the probability of accident increases in 128 times in comparison with its(his) sober colleague.
There is an erroneous opinion that incidental strong intoxications or a chronic alcoholism, and consumption of wine are dangerous to mood or appetite only - it is harmless. The science approves(confirms) other: increase of a level of alcohol in blood more than for 0,05 percent(interests) sharply strengthens susceptibility of danger of a traumatism though reception of alcohol in such insignificant quantities(amounts) as if and does not cause appreciable from changes in behaviour of the person. It is More than that, consider(count), that originators of the basic failures(accidents) because of alcohol on transport are the people who have used a few(a little;little bit) spirits. About same speak accidents, proisshedshie with tourists at sea tour.
Sudebno-meditsinskoe-medical opening sunk is judicial established(installed), for example, in their blood traces of alcohol, though and in insignificant quantities(amounts). Interrogation of witnesses has allowed to specify, that some of victims drank(saw) alcohol some hours prior to bathing. It speaks that alcohol negatively operates(works) not only in lots(plenties) and not only until while intoxication is felt. The raised(increased) susceptibility of danger is a lot of ustojchivee, than the sensation of intoxication, also is long supported(maintained) by weakness, depression, indifference of the person to surrounding. When it is necessary to operate complex(difficult) movements, there is a little broken(disturbed) a coordination, slowed down the reaction, unstable attention. Sight becomes "tunnel" (t. e. The review on breadth is narrowed twice-three times), and the main thing, criticality of thinking and an estimation of the opportunities are broken.
It is noticed, what even small dozes of alcohol can cause delay of simple impellent reaction of the person during 4 - 5 days, and reactions become paradoxical: weak razdrazhiteli cause the rough answer, and strong razdrazhiteli - weak reaction.
It has the direct attitude(relation) to conditions of complex(difficult) travel. The matter is that on sports routes where almost every day it is filled fascinating, and at times risky struggle against the nature, usually does not arise need(requirement) for alcohol. Besides sports traditions, structure of participants, necessity of the account for backpacks of each gram of weight exclude the use of alcohol. As a rule, a reserve medical spirit available in group bring (at absence of diseases) untouched up to the end of a hike - the first parking of geologists, settlement, railway station. Worse, if on a route of such intermediate items(points) a little. Then in irresponsible group there can be aspirations "to note, "relax". At all malosti the accepted doze of alcohol next day tourists will leave on a route with residual poslealkogolnymi the phenomena, t. e. With the increased susceptibility of danger.
Accidents, especially in simple hikes, often happen directly not connected with movement on a route, overcoming of natural obstacles and the device of a marching life. About 1/6 all heavy traumas occurs(happens) during rest on a route (for example, at bathing, games and t. Item).
Similar happens usually because of discrepancy of individual behaviour of people during "non-working" time to the established(installed) safety requirements. The free time of the traveller in general gives in to management, than movement on a route much more hard. Having shifted on dry language corrected recommendations on safe passage of a fenny bog or a hinged ferry, it is possible to count, that they will be apprehended by the majority of people as really necessary for action. Are apprehended so because have positive character and answer questions, where as as it is necessary to do(make).
But it is impossible to think seriously of general observance of the rules adjusting(regulating) "pure(clean)" rest of tourists if these rules are characterized by a simple interdiction, like " do not throw axes in trees ". Being are certainly fair in itself, such recommendations yet do not prompt kinds of admissible games at leisure. It is More than that, all воспитательно-explanatory work on a safety frequently does not render desirable action if the argument which it(she) uses, has negative painting.
Observance of the established(installed) norms(rates) of behaviour, certainly, very important. But would be naive to count, that this all. First, it is impossible each step of the tourist including incorrect, to stipulate any statute, and secondly, the morals always is more widely right.
Persistently demanding discipline from tourists, it is impossible to reduce all to simple necessity to carry out rules, instructions and positions. The blind discipline and discipline "under pressure" easily misfire.
Only persistent explanatory and educational work it is possible to achieve that ideal when at all travelling it will be generated vysokosoznatelnoe the attitude(relation) to the kind of tourism. Only such by it is possible to create organic unity of the measures directed on safety of hikes, with measures on increase of mass character and sports skill and to overcome contradictions arising from time to time between these directions in tourism.
Therefore to speak about self-discipline of participants of travel, t more correctly. e. About such behaviour when the person behaves correctly not because is afraid of consequences of an indiscipline or submits to compulsion. No, it(he) realizes necessity of performance of rules because they turn to its(his) internal need(requirement). At skilful educational work with tourists the feeling of a duty(debt) and the responsibility for safety are perceived by them not only as the abstract concepts, but also as emotional experience. In other words, any deviation(rejection) from safety requirements on a route is felt as rough infringement of moral principles and causes almost physical pain what is brought with strong negative emotions.
And, on the contrary, at badly put educational work, at low consciousness and weak development in separate members of group of some important social feelings and representations all external concentration and discipline at serious test rassypaetsja, as a house of cards. Not constrained by internal discipline, a duty(debt), respect for another, such people under influence of danger turn to moral ugly creatures.
It was above told about how in 1969, rising on pass Hokel, the head of group of the Kiev tourists has fallen in a bergschrund. What was further?
Any of three participants of the group who have stopped on a slope under pass, has not tried to help(assist) comrade. As tourists on the commission assorted circumstances of accident spoke subsequently, they have unanimously solved, that the head was lost, and is final about its(his) destiny were going to learn(find out), having passed(having taken place) a ring route: pass Hokel - pass Kluhorsky - " Northern a shelter - glacier Hokel, t. e. Approximately in 2 days. Three young, healthy persons had a necessary set of mountain equipment, safely passed pass and with approach of darkness have stayed the night in a convenient place.
Having lead a part of night in a unconsciousness in a bergschrund, the head at daybreak, not removing from a boot of cats, has climbed in a sleeping bag (the backpack was at it(him)) and has tried to be warmed. Having realized in order that only movement can rescue(save) it(him), the victim hardly has got out of a crack and has spread on a glacier. Owing to happy coincidence of circumstances this very day it(he) has noticed far below on a glacier of people and began to call to the aid. Having heard shout and having seen in a zone ledopada a moving point, tourists from the next group have hastened upward and have organized transportation of the victim. As it(he) did not know, that happens with comrades, and assumed the worst, wide searches of many tourist groups which have gone with attraction have been undertaken.
Having recognized as the basic originator of accident of the head who admitted(allowed) an output(exit) of tourists on smooth rocks in cats and has applied to the insurance repshnur instead of the basic cord, the commission has offered for refusal to help(assist) suffering(bearing) disaster to forbid to participants of group to be engaged in mountaineering, to deprive with their sports categories and to bring about an event to the notice of public organizations in a place of their work.
Education at tourists of self-discipline and feeling of the responsibility should be begun with the most simple hike. From first steps it is necessary to achieve unconditional observance by the beginner of routing discipline, the serious attitude(relation) to the insurance, high insistence to itself and validity to comrades.
The order and safety should be guaranteed by the strict one-man management supported(maintained) by a single will of collective, voluntary submission to authority of the head selected(elected) by group. Misconduct should be considered(examined) not only as non-observance of the order, but also as infringement of the basic security measure in a hike.
COMPLEX of the REASONS And PUBLIC OPINION
In the previous sections it was spoken about the various parties(sides) and the private(individual) reasons of susceptibility of tourists of danger during travel. In a real life all is more difficultly, and rare accident is caused only by one-two concrete reasons. As a rule, the misfortune is consequence(investigation) of a combination of several factors, and some of them can be recognized by the cores solving(deciding). We shall try to lead on an example of one case the analysis of a combination of the reasons and the factors led a tourist trauma.
In November, 1969 six students of the Ural polytechnical institute under direction of the head of group, not having informed tourist section, autocratically send(have left) on a route in area Denezhkina of the Stone. After a breakfast in izbushke on the river Big SHegultan (in 9 km from settlement Solva), the group at 13 o'clock has gathered for an ascention. With itself has taken only one meal a day: it is a little bread, crackers, to bank of a canned meat, kg of sausage and... A bottle of vodka. Skis and have left an axe in a log hut.
On border of a wood have met the tourists who are come back after unsuccessful (because of a bad weather) ascentions on Denezhkin the Stone. However bad meteouslovija and the example of other group has not stopped students: including, that the wind and the limited visibility are usual for mountains, they have continued the rise which has taken away of many(a lot of;much) forces. Having ascended, at last, on top, have decided to round a spur of the Stone that " the wind did not blow to face ". However, as visibility almost was not, and in group it has not appeared a compass, kartoshemy districts, people have gone astray and, thinking, that go down in a valley of the river Small SHegultan, began to go down in the opposite party(side), to the river Talnichnoj. Position has become complicated that at top one of students began to complain of bad state of health. At descent(release) it(he) should be supported(maintained) under hands. But to stop and have a rest, as the weakened comrade asked, the group was not solved, being afraid obmorozheny, and continued a way to a wood.
It was possible to reach the first light forest nearby polunochi. Here on a wind students have tried to make fire, but a small fire which they razozhgli, having spent a unique box of matches, has blown the next impulse of a drifting snow. Then, having had a bite and raspiv vodka, the group began to go down further.
In a wood the snow was deeper and is formidable. Therefore the head has precipitately suggested to be broken into subgroups: it(he) and one more physically strong student send away(have left) forward torit a track, and the others, supporting(maintaining) ill, send slowly them after.
Having passed(Having taken place) about 4 km, the advanced two, having got tired, has stayed the night without a fire under roots vyvorochennogo a storm of a tree. In the morning students have found out, that they cannot put on the frozen boots. The head had in a stock valenoks, and its(his) partner has adhered to legs(foots) of a musquash cap (as has rescueed(saved) it(him) from obmorozheny).
Soon these students have heard shots of hunters, began to shout and go on a sound. At midday on shout there was their comrade the lagged behind group, which four hours hastened(hurried) to the head to inform, that the patient has lost consciousness.
Three together students again send(have left) on Talnichnuju and have moved upstream back on Denezhkin the Stone. Soon it(him) has met hunting izbushka. There they were late at some o'clock, yet have not eaten, had not a rest and have not learned(have not found out) road to the nearest settlement from local hunters. With approach(approximation) of twilight in izbushku two lagged behind students who have informed, that their comrade, despite of artificial breath and grinding of hands and legs(foots) have absolutely casually gone down, has died.
As the group has not been registered anywhere, it(she) did not count on someone's help. However the tourists, met to students at rise on top, feeling moral responsibility for them, two days expected under the Stone, and then have given the alarm. On a place tourist saving groups have left. In search and rescue works it has been involved more than 100 person, including militia, local residents, hunters, the travellers was area Denezhkina of the Stone.
Owing to fast intervention other students from group have got off only obmorozheniem legs(foots).
Than this case of a group traumatism is caused? At plurality of the reasons which have resulted(brought) unfortunately, the cores, obviously, it is possible to consider(count): first, low discipline of the victims who deceived tourist section of Institute and have left on not registered route in infringement " Rules of the organization of tourist amateur travel in territory of the USSR ", and secondly, weak moral and physical preparation of the group, insufficient tourist experience, ignorance of elementary safety rules.
To the concrete factors promoted a traumatism, it is possible to carry following infringements:
1) the group has not received the qualified consultation, had no routing documents, kartoshemy and descriptions of a route, a compass (why has easily gone astray);
2) tourists have gathered for top when on light conditions it was necessary to go down from it(her), and have not stopped an ascention, despite of bad weather;
3) it has not been taken with itself of warm things, an axe, a necessary stock of products, matches;
4) the troupe has roughly broken(disturbed) a mode of day and norm(rate) of behaviour, having finished(stopped) movement only to polunochi and having drunk on a route (especially counting upon the further way) alcohol;
5) students had no skills of the organization of field lodgings for the night, could not construct a barrier, keep fire, organize warm bivuak;
6) the head has unreasonably divided(undressed) group into the parts unable to independent action and rendering of the necessary help to the victim;
7) the group had no medical means and knowledge for the help ill, has not accepted all accessible measures to deduce(remove) it(him) from a condition of moral depression and to not admit(allow) freezing.
It is possible to recognize as collateral factors of a traumatism severe weather conditions, darkness, lack of equipment, the inept reference(manipulation) with it(him), the use of alcohol.
Such extensive complex of objective and subjective factors, the reasons, direct and indirect, excludes, possibly, searches any unique and all of defining(determining) ways of effective preventive maintenance of a traumatism in tourism. The complex of protective actions of organizational, technical, educational and educational character can be opposed to a complex of dangers only.
Many concrete actions directed on accident prevention on travel have been already considered(examined) in corresponding(meeting) sections. But as the private(individual) factors raising(increasing) susceptibility of those or other people of danger of a traumatism, develop in the certain combinations allowing even to speak about the most widespread scheme(plan) of accident, and means of preventive maintenance are united in the certain directions. One of most important of them - formation of public opinion about inadmissibility of infringement of security measures, about necessity of struggle against a traumatism on tourist tracks.
Let's consider(examine) questions of formation of such opinion actually in tourist group (or tourist section of collective of physical culture), the маршрутно-qualifying commission and club of tourists, and also - regardless to scale of tourist collective - to means of mass propagation and propaganda.
It is known, that safety in group is reached(achieved) not only performance of corresponding(meeting) rules of behaviour obligatory for each tourist separately. The behaviour of each tourist inevitably depends on its(his) comrades and characteristic for the given collective of an atmosphere of mutual relations, sights, ideals. In other words, the attitude(relation) of the person to danger on travel develops during mutual influence of public opinion of group and specific features of its(his) members, and the collective has crucial importance.
From here are represented very important correct formation of sights of collective on danger and comprehension of necessity of group protection against it(her). It is More than that, it is possible to consider(count), that becoming of tourist collective is not finished, that it(he) yet has not ripened, if at all members is not developed(produced) the uniform attitude(relation) to danger, to the methods promoting its(her) elimination.
To expect correct group opinion it is possible, certainly, from correctly picked up group. Therefore at the organization enough complex(difficult) (and furthermore unsafe) travel it is a lot of attention and time to give shozhennosti and srabotannosti its(her) participants on trainings, to finding-out of a generality of their sights, an operating time of marching compatibility of all members of group. It is not excluded, that at some participants undesirable qualities, for example zaznajstvo, bezootvetstvennost, a negligence, levity, irritability can be shown. The head should weigh in advance, whether the collective successfully will manage to struggle with these lacks, whether yokes will result(bring) egoistical character traits and individualisticheskie moods in accidents. If there are doubts it is better to refuse travel to the given structure.
Other opportunities open at formation of marching collectives on educational tourist actions - gathering, seminars, rates. For education of mutual aid and a collectivism, for the best organization of educational process it is expedient to go at times on some deviations(rejections) in selection of people on groups and to unite together "weak" and "strong" (it is probable, to the detriment of physical and technical readiness of the last). The main thing to what it is necessary to aspire at a complete set of groups, is to creation of strong, amicable collective which will help(assist) to develop its(his) best features with each participant and to correct undesirable, will help(assist) to generate correct sights at safety.
Though marching groups are not always steady and for following travel some participants, depending on the opportunities and interests, join new collectives, the kernel is usually kept. Those collective sights, traditions, features, in the organization and carrying out of travel which allow to speak about original "school" or "style" of tourist collective are kept also. On occassion this concept primenimo to large associations of tourists in scale of area or city. And always the concept of "school" joins the certain attitude(relation) which has developed(produced) at collective to danger and risk on a route.
Education of insistence to itself and the responsibility before comrades is accompanied by education of intolerance to infringers of safety rules. Insufficiently disciplined beginner from first days acquires, that existing in group the collective control, traditions of public analysis and condemnation of infringements against safety will not leave any of its(his) offences unpunished.
The main thing in development(manufacture) of public opinion of group - formation of belief about unconditional advantage of safe travel before risky; thus the reasons of such sight at different tourists are completely not indifferent. The special attention should be turned on for what the similar common position is something compulsory. For such people hardness of collective belief should become the controller of all motives of their behaviour: and the cores defining(determining) acts the person ka for the long period of travel, and situational, connected with concrete conditions on a route.
It is impossible to forget and that correctly not directed influence of group far not always has only positive influence in safety issues.
As the collective is represented with a combination of separate persons and each of them renders return influence on collective, is not excluded, that the undisciplined person in group can negatively affect(influence) collective representations about admissible risk.
Sometimes in tourist group podspudno there is an erroneous and harmful sight, that strict performance of instructions on preventive maintenance of a traumatism is an attribute of weakness and even nesportivnosti. In itself many members of group also would not think to neglect the necessary insurance a cord at movement on the closed glacier or a life jacket on a water route, but desire to not lag behind comrades and to not lose (or to win) respect pushes them on ignoring of danger.
The adverse situation when carelessness and imprudence become the collective phenomenon, usually develops under influence of infringements of safety rules at first only one or several tourists, and in group there are no people who can neutralize their negative influence on others.
The degree of influence of tourists-infringers depends on authority of these people on collective. The head should notice in time an opportunity of similar influence, define(determine) the promptings which have caused wrong sights and acts (whether simply inexperience or desire "to distinguish") and to neutralize them. To make it not always it is simple, but to admit(allow), that a position of collective formed, and furthermore defined(determined) (if such person threatens to become "hero" of group) the people frankly ignoring safety requirements, even worse. If arrangements, belief, explanations do not help(assist), it is necessary to go on the direct conflict, down to deduction of the infringer from collective.
It is impossible to manage it(this), as a collective position in relation to danger as it was specified above, the wrong group position - a direct way to accidents is solving for acts of separate members of group, and. So, if not skilled group precipitately is solved on passage without investigation of a unknown complex(difficult) threshold or going to force vbrod without the insurance the rough river, quite really, that the reasonable opinion of separate tourists will not be accepted in calculation and is classified as cowardice or weakness (that is why, most likely, and it will not be stated aloud).
The big courage, independence of sights and conviction in the correctness are necessary to go against hypnosis of the general(common) opinion. That the created erroneous position cannot be recognized collective as it(she) contradicts the standard concepts and spirit of a collectivism here should serve one of the basic reasons of the head and misses opinion of larger and skilled tourist collectives and the organizations of area, city or area. Certainly, it is very important, that in the organizations, engaged development of tourism, questions of a safety of travel stood on one of the first places and had certainly correct, collectively supported(maintained) decision.
Practically now all affairs connected with preventive maintenance and decrease(reduction) of a traumatism on amateur routes, public bodies - the маршрутно-qualifying commissions, tourist saving groups and posts, section by kinds of tourism usually are engaged at sports and tourist clubs, voluntary sports societies, advice(councils) on tourism and excursions. Such alignment of forces allows to involve successfully in the important and labour-consuming work on check of readiness of groups to hikes the most qualified active from operating(working) sportsmen-travellers. And their opinion, voploshchennoe in the recommendation of the basic working body - the маршрутно-qualifying commission, frequently happens solving at a choice of a concrete route and selection of participants of a hike, at definition of security measures.
The right to a unilateral categoriality by consideration of a question on the admission of concrete group to travel (the commission is not the letting out(releasing) organization, its(her) duty(debt) and the right - to draw the conclusion about an opportunity, safety and expediency of a hike) is got by members of the commissions owing to their big tourist experience and authority. Only the superiority in technical, tactical and other skill does(makes) members of the маршрутно-qualifying commissions, despite of severity of their conclusions, desirable advisers and checking in tourist groups. Tourists know, that they have interests dividing(sharing) them and sights comrades, experience and which adherence to principles will help(assist) interesting and accident-free carrying out of a hike.
The fact resulted(brought) above testifies to advantage(benefit) of routing work, that for two years the number of heavy traumas in the groups, considered(examined) the commissions and received routing documents, has appeared in 5 times less, than in "nonformalized".
At the same time it is dangerous, when this or that маршрутно-qualifying commission by consideration zajavochnyh materials on travel supposes carelessness, indulgences, liberalism or when separate wrong sights of its(her) some members substitute collective opinion of the commission.
In 1969 in group of the Minsk tourists during passage of threshold Dzembran on the river Black CHeremosh (Carpathians) the kayak and one of the participants, was traumatized and appeared in water without a life jacket has turned over, has sunk.
Analysis of the events preceded misfortune, has opened gross infringements in actions not only the head of group, but also city club of tourists and its(his) маршрутно-qualifying commission considered(examined) the plan of a hike.
It was found out, that the commission has allowed to go to four groups to a hike one group and has issued all seniors in groups as heads, obviously knowing, that one person will actually supervise. The commission has resolved to two groups movement on rafts though because of absence at participants and plotovozhdenija they could not be supposed heads of groups of experience not only to an alloy of III category of complexity on the mountain river, but even to a simple hike of II category .slozhnosti. To water travel of III category on a kayak the girl who has lost subsequently who earlier on a kayak never went has been admitted(allowed) and had only experience of hike I of a category on the flat river on a rowboat.
In zajavochnyh books of groups and in reports of the commission complex(difficult) sites and ways of their overcoming have not been stipulated.
The commission has not forbidden travel though knew, that up to a hike necessary trainings with participants were not spent and that already after its(her) positive conclusion the head of group, abusing the social standing of chairman of city club of tourists, has autocratically entered in reports new surnames and has redistributed participants (therefore some tourists have appeared written down twice in various groups).
To the main things explaining other infringements, there was an infringement of a principle about unlawfulness to members of the commission to consider(examine) zajavochnye materials of groups over which they supervise or in which consist. In this case one of subgroups chairman of the маршрутно-qualifying commission, another - a member of the commission, and over the third - their close relative, it(he) actually the head of travel and its(his) "letting out(releasing)" as it(he) had been signed all routing books supervised.
Thus, the collective opinion has appeared the changed wrong decision of narrow group of interested persons.
On occassion wrong views on an opportunity to observe any security measures not begin almost opinion of all commission. Having lost prestige and having turned to the simple registrar of hikes in the city or area, the commission ceases to use for check of readiness of groups and preventive maintenance of a traumatism such ways stipulated in rules, as purpose(assignment;destination) to tourists of control outputs(exits) with check of their equipment and technical skills. Does not show an increased requirement to tourist experience of heads and participants if on a route there are natural obstacles, characteristic for more complex(difficult) hikes.
About insufficient adherence to principles of collective opinion of some маршрутно-qualifying commissions speaks also that from acted(arrived) from them for last years zajavochnyh materials about 15 % has been returned on places because of discrepancy of experience of participants of complexity of the planned routes so, and it is inadmissible the raised(increased) danger of travel to these people.
Lacks of some commissions of formation of correct sights at safety of travel testify to trouble in activity of clubs of tourists. It is especially bad, when clubs reduce educational work under the prevention(warning) of a traumatism, reduce requirements to the maintenance(contents) of travel, do not accept measures of public influence to infringers of sports discipline, that actually stimulates growth of moods of adventurism and impunity.
The high responsibility before a society, discipline, consciousness and other moral qualities necessary for the tourist, it is impossible to bring up for those some weeks which borrow(occupy) a curriculum at a tourist seminar on the job. Especially when it is a question of heads of groups who quite often in general independently get the necessary organizing skills. Therefore level with local sektsijami tourism at the enterprise, in an educational institution or establishment such public organizations, as clubs with various forms of educational work which absence sometimes turns around dramas on routes are necessary also.
Basis of educational work in a direction of decrease(reduction) in a traumatism in club should become firm general(common) opinion, that the admission on a little complex(difficult) though also very interesting, the route of unprepared group cannot be compensated by any other useful "feedback" from travel - neither increase of skill of tourists, nor preparation of arresters, development of a new route.
It is impossible to forget, that cases of minute levity and "detour" corrected tourists at liberalism of those to whom the control over their observance is charged, develop into a certain norm(rate), system. Then the part of tourists and public organizations, their representing, have a dangerous opinion, as if in separate situations (" In fact the hike has been devoted to such date... " Or " At us " burns " the plan on masters... ", or " Children(Guys) prepared for travel the whole year, have received holidays... ") permissibly to not observe the requirement to experience gathering on a route.
It has been above told about misfortune during a winter hike across Kola peninsula. Analysis of circumstances of incident has shown, that its(his) basic reason is covered in gross blunders of the head and participants of travel, in their levity by preparation of a hike, confusion and passivity in emergency conditions, in технико-tactical illiteracy.
At the same time the most serious claims can be shown(presented) to club of tourists of one of the higher educational institutions, badly brought up and illegally let out(illegally released) unprepared people on an excessive route for them. As it has been established(installed), the head of it(this) enough complex(difficult) travel had no necessary experience of participation in a ski hike of III category of complexity and experience of a management(manual) by a ski hike of II category; half of tourists had no experience of ski travel, and as those their "goodhearted" comrades on club have included the pedestrian hike in November on Kalininskoj areas. Spent at absence of a snow, it(he), certainly, could not give the necessary experience. At the same time this wrong decision promoted reassessment by tourists of the forces and opportunities and has led to accident.
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The discipline - the mortgage of safety in tourism, also begins it(she) with small. Look, what order in camp of XI meeting of tourists of the Soviet Baltic republics. It is possible to hope, that the order and discipline will accompany these tourists on their future travel. A photo.
What influences in the solving(deciding) image formation in tourist group, section, the commission, club, in general in a society of correct sights at admissible risk and security measures on tourist routes? Most likely - means of mass propagation and propaganda, a level of массово-explanatory work.
Effectiveness of agitation-and-propaganda work depends on many reasons: from reasonable motivation of advice(councils), that, where and as it is impossible to do(make) in a hike; from the adaptation of separate forms of belief to concrete conditions of activity of tourist section, club, collective; from the account of an educational level and even specific features of the "educated" person.
Unfortunately, prepodnosimye knowledge not always there correspond(meet) degrees of readiness of listeners or readers. So, is useless to speak about the dangers connected with the wrong decision of tactical problems(tasks) on a route, that who yet has not seized(has not taken possession) elements of technics(technical equipment) of movement; to what to explain subtleties of first-aid treatment with application of injections to the one who is not able to address with bandage or cannot remove a mote from an eye.
At the same time excessively simplified or general(common) recommendations at times "filtering" even in tourist directories are poorly effective. As the sense of such advice(councils) is sometimes killed by unintentional humour of a statement. Whether well it is possible to concern seriously, for example, to advice(councils) like: " Never to do(make) nothing alone "; "... Narrow tracks to overcome with limiting care. Sharply having turned, it is possible to fall from breakage "; " At a sting of insects and snakes to remove a sting, to squeeze out poison from ranki, to grease with iodine or to make a lotion of liquid ammonia " *.
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* the Pocket directory of the tourist., 1963.
At last, can be simply harmful prepodnosimye in lectures to beginners or in editions for young tourists of the recommendation about technically very complex(difficult) or risky receptions of overcoming of the mountain rivers, lavinoopasnyh sites, rocky routes. It is inexact having understood unprepared mind(wit) sense of a technique, not representing real force of elements and without consideration, that in each business there are subtleties, some beginning(starting) travellers on fault(wine) of erroneous propaganda reception get in emergencies.
In 1968 the group of the senior pupils headed by the head minor and not had necessary tourist experience, during a nine-day hike on foothills Western Tjan-Шаня has risked in the evening to overcome vbrod the river Ugam. The ferry has not been caused by necessity as in 30 minutes of walking there was well-known to tourists a bridge. However desire though on to reduce a way a few was so it is great, that the instructor under the request of group has constructed tourists a circuit and has led them in water therefore many have been knocked by a pressure of water down and, having come to be in a mountain stream, were lost.
As it has appeared, participants of group and the head up to a hike have been acquainted in general with receptions of overcoming of water barrier, but did not assume, that danger of ferries so is great, and without exact observance of the certain conditions in general is impossible. In particular, the ford in the evening through the river depth more than 1 m is impossible at speed of current over 2 m a second and at construction of group "guskom". Namely so the head (incorrectly having understood sense of overcoming of water barrier "wall") has constructed group, that has led only zapruzhivaniju the rivers, to sharp increase in its(her) pressure at tourists and snosu them on current.
Other deviations(rejections) in propaganda activities on security measures are not less dangerous also. For example, absence of the information of a tourist active about accidents with the analysis of their reasons and instructions(indications) on necessary preventive actions.
It is necessary to understand, at last, that similar concealing of lacks of advantage(benefit) cannot bring. And why it is necessary to hold back? Unless workers of militia with instructive conversations about a street traumatism and a mention of victims of failures(accidents) do not act at schools, clubs, in foyer of cinemas? Unless workers of fire protection do not use broadcasting centers in department stores, at stations and in other places of a congestion of the population for brief messages on struggle against fires, with concrete examples of the misfortunes brought by fire?
Absence in special editions of the necessary data on a tourist traumatism especially annoyingly when in newspapers or the magazines calculated on the most mass reader, periodically there are the publications singing single, accomplished(perfect;absolute) in infringement of all rules, proplyvy across Baikal or calling for unorganized travel across Pamir. Positive plans of authors of books or the film scripts, devoted to tourism and mountaneering, sometimes conflict to the valid effect from their products as the last objectively push beginners on unjustified risk on routes, realization of the concept " live risking " unusable means and for the sake of the purposes, not always worthy to sacrifice a life and health of the person.
Instead of the reference(manipulation) to homebrew "supermen", perhaps, it is more useful to recollect more often final words of the courageous book of Alain Bombara: "... Nobody can and should not risk a life differently, as for public advantage(benefit)... Everyone who thinks, that it is possible to become famous if simply free of charge to sweep on a raft to America or still somewhere, I conjure you, think better... Deceived by a Mirage, keen by tempting idea, imagining such navigation as pleasure walk, you will understand all gravity of struggle for a life only when will be to have time late too already to collect all courage. Your confusion will be that greater(big), that you have endangered the life without any advantage(benefit). And in fact in the world exists so much fine and noble purposes for the sake of which it is possible to risk a life! " *
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*Бомбар A.Za a board at the will., 1958.
THE CONCLUSION
Let's bring some results of consideration of dangers of tourism under the formula " a route - equipment - the traveller - a society ".
As it has been shown, is more and there are less dangerous kinds of tourism, seasons, days and even hours of travel; safety of people depends on the certain kinds of equipment in a greater or smaller measure. But if to bring a attention to the question seriously clearly, what not the route and not equipment define(determine) a great bulk of accidents. Though as the injuring factor the environment serves in a hike. The flame of a fire, trees on ski descent(release) is obvious, that, stones in a vein of the river on a water route or columns are lengthways dear(expensive), on which the autotourist goes, put(render) damages, so to say, only by way of "self-defense".
At unconditional objectivity and materiality of the dangers connected with a risky route and bad equipment, all of them represent imaginary danger to mass travel. Imaginary appreciably because the majority of groups on active tourist routes is made not with so complex(difficult) travel where these factors could play a main role. About the same imaginary danger to the central parts of some largest cities of the Western Europe the raised(increased) speed of motor transport is: according to data of foreign statistics, in these areas only 10 % of simultaneously moving cars follow to destination, the others only search for a parking lot.
The valid danger on travel is the person, and the traumatism reflects in tourist routes not will of a case or action of any forces not subject to the person, and is consequence(investigation) of its(his) own misses and errors.
The raised(increased) susceptibility of separate travellers of danger of accident has the certain value, on what the unsatisfactory condition of their health, the raised(increased) reaction to change of a situation, a level of exhaustion, a course of current of emotional processes influences.
The main danger consists in maloopytnosti, in weak технико-tactical and morally-strong-willed preparation of the people going travel, in low discipline and consciousness of some of them. The first is shown that the person does not know how it is necessary to act(arrive) in this or that conditions, or knows, but not able to make it(this). The second - that it(he) knows and can, but does not want and does not do(make) that demands safety, or simply does not wish to know, that it is necessary to do(make) for this purpose.
At the responsibility of the traveller for wrong, hazardous to health and lives acts cannot be relieved of responsibility and those who has prepared, has checked up and has let out(has released) it(him) on a route. And also from those who has brought up it(him) and has imparted the certain sights at necessity of safe passage of a route, - t. e. From a society. Therefore the society - whether it be tourist group, collective of physical culture or any other association of people - in case of domination in it(him) of wrong collective sights at a traumatism also becomes one of the valid dangers in tourism.
To oppose these dangers with preventive actions it is much more difficult, than to the majority of illnesses. The most simple precautionary merjami are organizational-technical, connected with introduction of accident protection devices, improvement of equipment, an accomplishment of routes, but also their carrying out demands the decision of the whole complex of problems(tasks). Problems(tasks) not simple, not solved for one-two year as they cover the big circle of questions from especially industrial up to legal, legal.
At the same time it is necessary to recognize, that any technical measures cannot liquidate completely sources of danger in tourism. Besides their effectiveness will depend on how they are met by tourists. If it will appear, that technical improvements of saving means impose additional loading on travellers, cause inconvenience it will cause counteraction to the actions directed on decrease(reduction) of a traumatism.
It is impossible to reach(achieve) appreciable decrease(reduction) in accidents in tourism by any one educational campaign. Only constant and regular application of many educational means, and is not so much for correction of already "ready" infringers, how many for preventive work with rising generations of travellers and with a new staff joining tourism, can provide the certain success.
Not less important systematic expansion of system of preparation of heads of tourist travel, tourist organizers, instructors, introduction of really all-the-year-round training of sportsmen in tourist sektsijah, their strengthening(amplification) obshchefizicheskoj and special preparation, perfection of technical and tactical skill.
To realize these(it) and many other things measures hardly. And the purpose of the book will be reached(achieved), if it(she) will help(assist) to pay steadfast attention of the public to safety issues and struggle against a traumatism. Such struggle which would not limit cognitive, educational and sports opportunities of travel, and promoted development of the active tourism which has personified aspiration of the person to oppose to forces of the nature the skill and persistence, to overcome by means of a collectivism, courage and discipline of an obstacle and difficulty, to achieve a victory over blind fury of elements and time(temporary) weakness own "I".