Briefly about mountains

Our planet the Earth was no time the heated ball which gave heat to interplanetary space and was gradually cooled(refrigerated). The contents of the Earth included various chemical elements, and at its(her) cooling more serious of them have lowered(omitted) downwards. Lighter(More mild) elements have emerged on a surface, they first of all have undergone to cooling, have more quickly hardened. As a result of this process three basic coating of the Earth were formed: the fallen asleep coating from granitov and basalts; an ore coating from light(mild) metals and, at last, the kernel(core) of the Earth formed by heavy metals.  Not at once the cortex of the Earth was formed. During hardening there were stormy processes, through stiffening cortex the whole seas of the fused mass broke. This mass in the further also stiffened, the formed excavations were filled with water, there were continents and oceans.

The Earth continued to cool down. Its(her) inner part decreased in volume, and the external stone coating by gravity fell and smorshchivalas. On an earth surface greater(big) cords(crimps) were formed. These cords(crimps) at times reaching(achieving) enormous heights, also are mountain ridges of a plaited parentage. During such plication the cortex of land bursted, and in separate places the fused masses were again thrown up. In such places enormous cones of the thrown out materials were heaped up, mountains of a volcanic parentage were formed.

Goroobrazovatelnye processes occured(happened) not everywhere and not always equally intensely and during one time. Mountains have the age. The youngest mountain ridges are the Alpes, Caucasus and the Himalayas. Urals Mountains have arisen before these mountains, and the Donetsk range is even more ancient.

And today the earth's crust is not in a state of rest. Its(her) one parts slowly rise, others fall.

Alongside with goroobrazovatelnymi processes occured(happened) and there are processes of destruction of mountains. Blasting factors are: a wind, changes of temperature and water.

Studying of an external coating of the Earth has shown, that rocks making it(her) can be broken into three basic groups: sedimental rocks, izverzhennye rocks, metamorficheskie (changed) rocks.

Products of destruction of the rocks, dumped(reset) in the sea, and the remnants of organisms of sea animals during many thousand years otlagajutsja at the bottom of oceans and the seas, forming powerful(potent) layers of deposits. Owing to movement of an earth's crust these layers rise from sea depths, deposits are condensed, sedimental rocks are formed. The basic characteristic of sedimental breeds is their lamination and homogeneity; all sedimental breeds are poorly strong. An example of such sedimental breeds are sandstones, limestones, galechniki and clay.

Izverzhennye breeds were formed at hardening the fused mass. These are very strong, monolithic breeds in which there are no attributes of lamination. Porphyries and basalts concern to them granity.

metamorficheskie, or the changed breeds are formed at change of sedimental breeds under action of the big pressure and a heat. From this group it is possible to name: shales (modified clay), marble (the modified limestones). In them attributes of lamination are still visible. Their durability is less, than durability izverzhennyh breeds. Many of these breeds are rather easily stratified.

Processes of mountain building and destruction frame a land forms of mountains. In any mountain ridge or in separate mountain we distinguish: bottom, a slope, a crest and top. Sometimes in top some crests converge. The part of a crest concluded between two tops, is called as a saddle; if through a saddle there is a track or in general passes(takes place) a way from one slope on another, such saddle is called as pass.

Crests very much often are used as a way for an ascention on top as they are most safe from avalanches and rockfalls. The abrupt slope of mountain is called as a wall. The separate rocky towers blocking a way on a crest, are called as gendarmes.

On slopes of mountains can meet various depth of dredging and zholoby. Wide dredging are called as a lobby and quite often happen are filled by a snow or small lednichkami. A narrow lobby are called zholobami. The wide vertical crack in a rocky or ice slope is called as a fireplace. The narrow slope or vertical crack is called as a hiatus. From slopes of mountains and from a wide lobby whole "rivers" from greater(big) and small fragments of the rocks which are breaking away from slopes of mountains sometimes flow down; these stone rivers are called as taluses.

Mountain ridges are separated from each other by gorges or valleys. If in these valleys there were ice cellars, a bottom(fundus) of valleys rather flat, valleys are filled by moraines - high crests from large and fine fragments, stsementirovannyh sand or clay.
Map

The deformed(distorted) image on a paper of all earth surface or its(her) part is called as a map. Distortion occurs(happens) because a spherical convex surface which specimen is the surface of the Earth, it is impossible to develop(unwrap) without break on a plane, as for example, it is impossible to stretch(drag out) on a plane a surface of a ball, not having torn it(her). Exception is that event when on a map very small part of an earth surface as which we can consider(count) almost flat is represented.

Maps differ under the maintenance(contents) and on scales. Under the maintenance(contents) of a map can be: economic, physical, topographical, sea and special. The attitude(relation) specifying is called as scale of a map, skolkim to units of length on an earth surface there corresponds(meets) unit of length on a map. So for example, the scale 1 : 100 000 specifies, that 1 sm of a map corresponds(meets) 1 km on an earth surface. On the accepted scales distinguish maps (1 : 500 000, 1 : 250 000, 1 : 100 000, 1 : 50 000) and plans (1:25000, 1:20000, 1:15000 and 1 : 10000).

The topographical map gives us representation and about a lay of land which is conditionally represented otmyvkoj or horizontals. In the first event the places having different heights, are colored in various tints of green and brown color. More convenient way are horizontals which enable precisely to define(determine) an angle of an inclination of an earth surface. The projection to a plane of the lines bridging points, having identical height above sea level is called as horizontals.

To distinguish on a map a cavity from top, use conditional hyphens - bergshtrihami which specify a direction of a slope. At each horizontal its(her) relative or absolute mark (height above sea level) is put. It enables and without bergshtrihov to understand a land forms. Knowing distance between two horizontals and excess of one of them over another, it is possible to define(determine) an angle of an inclination of a surface graphically.

Using a map, we can judge a lay of land, we can define(determine) the location and choose a correct way. For this purpose it is necessary to focus a map on cardinal points and to define(determine) a direction on tops interesting us or other purpose of a way. Orientation on cardinal points is made by means of a compass. As is known, the magnetic needle ranges approximately in a plane of a meridian, specifying to one extremity(end) on the north, another-th the south. When the finger will stop, it is necessary to turn a map so that northern part of a map coincided with northern extremity(end) of a magnetic needle. (it is ordinary on a map the north there is above, a south - below, the east - on the right and the West-at the left.) any direction on a map or on an earth surface is defined(determined) by an azimuth. So the angle between any direction and northern extremity(end) of a meridian is called; this angle is counted clockwise, changing within the limits of from 0 up to 360.

On a map the azimuth is defined(determined) by readout of an angle from the put(rendered) grid of coordinates, and on district on a compass. How now to define(determine) the site on a map? For this purpose it is necessary to see at least two tops known to you which are put(rendered) and on a map. Having defined(determined) a direction on these tops, you can calculate azimuths from these tops on you. Having laid these azimuths a pencil on a map, you will find the place on crossing of two drawn directions. If it is necessary for you to plot any top, for this purpose it is necessary to solve a problem(task), return that which is stated above. For this purpose it is necessary to observe top from two points, having postponed the azimuths certain(specific) from two points from corresponding(meeting) tops on a map, in a point of crossing you receive required top. The same way it is possible to define(determine) distance up to inaccessible item(point) for any reasons. Being able to solve two described problems(tasks), easily to make a provisional sketch (kroki) districts.

It is necessary for climber to be able to use a compass and a map in a fog. Quite often it is necessary him itti in such conditions when the purpose of a way is closed and it is necessary to be guided on a compass. Above we already spoke that one point does not define(determine) a direction in space, therefore at movement in a fog the group of climbers should be built at the set course and a compass to pass the last. Closing, observing on a compass behind all chain, will provide promotion in the set direction. In the same way it is necessary to use a compass and at night.
Brief data on meteorology

Because the axis of rotation of the Earth is not perpendicular to a plane of rotation of the Earth around of the Sun, the average height of the Sun above horizon is not identical to various points of globe. So for example, in polar districts the Sun makes the visible way rather low above horizon in comparison with districts near equator. The quantity(amount) of heat acting from the Sun, the is more, than above there is a Sun. Therefore polar districts receive less heat for year, than districts equatorial. Solar beams, getting through an atmosphere, almost do not heat up it(her), but strongly heat up a surface of the Earth. As a result of it(this) the heating of an atmosphere goes from below. As show numerous observations, the temperature with height goes down approximately on 5-6 on 1 km. At some height such conditions are above sea level framed, that heat coming during summer does not suffice to kindle the snow which has dropped out for a winter. As a result of it(this) the snow masses forming a strip of eternal snows also accumulate. The height on which the heat balance is peer to zero, is called as a snow line. The more close the mountain district to a pole, the below lays a snow line.

The climate in any district is defined(determined) by aggregate of weathers within a year; in turn weather is defined(determined) by aggregate of such meteorological elements, as overcast, a wind, a rain, a snow, a hailstones, a blizzard, a thunder-storm.

Above an earth surface move various on the temperature and humidity of mass of air. On joints of these masses meteorological elements are especially strongly developed all. Such section of air masses is called as a meteorological front. The front always carries with itself change of weather.

Approximately to tell, what it is necessary to expect weather within the next few days, it is necessary to mean, that any intense moving to an atmosphere specifies instability of the given mass of air, that, hence, it is necessary to wait for change of these masses, arrival of front, and with it(him)-change of weather.

At definition of character of the occuring(happening) phenomena it is very important to establish(install), whether these phenomena are local, specifying on fastness of weather, or they have the general(common) character and are bound to the general(common) movement of air masses. As a matter of fact, all attributes of weather are parameters of local or general(common) processes.

If in mountain districts the mountain breeze, is observed in the morning and in the evening the breeze blows from mountains in valleys, and blows from valleys in mountains in the afternoon, is is an attribute of stable weather. Stable weather specifies also occurrence by evenings in valleys of a fog and abaissement of dew. In stable mass of air at a clear palate an atmosphere vyholazhivaetsja from below owing to night radiations from an earth surface, and the temperature begins with height in some events to raise(increase). To notice this attribute and by that to define(determine) stable weather it is possible, rising on slopes and immediately observing of changes of temperature. The same distribution of temperature specifies occurrence in the evenings smokes(dust hazes) in gorges, and also floating in the afternoon at one height cumulus clouds with slightly smoothed(maleficiated) apexes.

Everyone nadvizhenie front specifies change and with deterioration of weather. Smooth decrease of atmospheric pressure is an attribute of approach(approximation) of the front carrying with self overcast, deposits and intensifying of a wind. Nadvizhenie ridges of high clouds also is an attribute of approach(approximation) of a bad weather. At night approach(approximation) of front can be defined(determined) on a wreath around of the moon. In mountains approach(approximation) of a bad weather often is defined(determined) by occurrence of standing clouds above tops.

Any strong movement in high layers of an atmosphere specifies instability of air mass. These winds in high layers can be defined(determined) on occurrence of cumulus clouds (dinmonts), and at night-on the strengthened fibrillation of stars. Powerful(potent) cumulus stolpoobraznye clouds with the dim apexes, as a rule, foretell a thunder-storm.
Ice cellars

We already spoke that above a snow line there is a continuous accumulation of a snow. Simultaneously to it(this) there is a unloading of tops from a snow and an ice. This unloading is made with falling avalanches and glacier runoffs.

Avalanches and the snow collapses(landslides) broken from crests and tops, normally accumulate in circuses and the cavities environed by series of crests. These circuses are headstreams of ice cellars. A snow collecting in circuses gradually turns under action of meteorological factors and under influence of own gravity to firn-granular a dense snow. The further inspissation leads to education of the firn ice consisting of separate crystals. Separate crystals are accustomed to drinking among themselves, forming continuous gletchernyj an ice, already deprived attributes of crystals. Under pressure of snow masses the ice flows down in gorges, forming the glacial river. Rate of glacier movement depends on quantity(amount) of a snow and an ice in circus and kolebletsja from 25 mm up to 1,25 m at an o'clock. Being drained off on gorge, the ice cellar blasts rocks, smooths a bottom(fundus) of gorge, carries with itself the stones falling on it(him) from crests and from environing tops. All products of destruction the ice cellar carries downwards and, having reached(achieved) a strip of a melting, otlagaet them in the form of side and trailer moraines.

Roughnesses a box on which the ice cellar moves, force glacial mass to decrepitate(fissure). In those places where the glacial mass flows through the crests going across a box, the cracks extending up, and above cavities extending from top to bottom are formed. These cracks range across current of an ice cellar and called cross-section(transversal). If the ice cellar follows in wider part of the laying down, in these places owing to a flowing outward of mass of an ice longitudinal cracks are formed. Different rate of movement of an ice in the middle of current and at shores of moraines is the reason of occurrence of the regional cracks referred under an angle to shores. In mountains the climber should overcome two more kinds of cracks: bergschrund and rantklufty. The bergschrund is the greater(big) crack separating an actually-current ice cellar from its(his) circus. Rantklufty are formed at shores of an ice cellar owing to various warming by solar beams of coasted rocks and the ice. In those places where the bias of an ice cellar is especially abrupt, ice masses, being broken off(being lacerated), are heaped up by blocks and form ledopady.

The upper part of an ice cellar, above a snow line, normally happens is fallen asleep by a snow. The snow sweeps up cracks, forming under them snow bridges. Below .snegovoj lines the ice cellar becomes bare, and on it(him;them) numerous brooks flow. These streamlets gather then in one stream and, following from a grotto normally had at tongue (extremity(end)) of an ice cellar, form the mountain river. Ice cellars share on three basic groups: dolinnye, trailing and peremetnye, having having lacerated in the current.