Receptions of orientation on travel

To be guided by districts - means to find a direction of the sides of horizon and the site concerning environing local subjects and elements of a land forms. Orientation at movement in unfamiliar district consists in definition of distances and a withstanding of the necessary direction of a route.

Practically the tourist should be guided all time, to apply the most various receptions and agents of orientation: a map, a compass, hours, heavenly bodies, outlines of a land forms, various local subjects and attributes. At skilled(experienced) travellers the special feeling of orientation in space is developed(produced) even. For the beginning(starting) tourist a basis of bases is skill to work with a compass and a map which do not manage any tourist travel. ELEMENTS OF TOPOGRAPHY

Maps and schemes(plans)

Map. This reduced image of the earth surface executed in certain(specific) scale. Kinds of maps are very various. The most exact - topographical. However tourists have business(affairs) with regional maps and tourist kartoshemami more often.

Regional administrative maps, vypushennye for the majority of areas of the USSR, give representation about a locating of human settlements and allow to see the image of the big site of district.

Tourist kartoshemy are published for the most popular districts of travel. They are less detailed and are exact, than topographical, but data who are not present on topographical maps (a locating of tourist centers, camps, excursion objects, the most picturesque places and t contain. Item). On the some people kartoshemah this or that route is represented, others are supplied(stocked) by the detailed description of district and meeting places of interest. For practical movement on a route it is desirable to have the scheme(plan) (the plan, kroki) larger scale.

The scheme(plan) of district. It is carried out normally on the basis of a map, by copying from it(her) the most important elements of a land forms or direct copying on squares (with augmentation). It is the most convenient to apply a photo supposing any change of scale of the original, or tracing To copying with the subsequent reception sinek. It is possible to use a simple paper. In this case a map put on glass, atop of it(her) a paper, and under glass place an electrolamp. The drawing of a map educated thus easily to transfer(carry) even on a thick paper.

The scheme(plan) (map) is expedient for pasting on a thin dense cardboard, to cut on small rectangulars (on a format of an available tablet) and to paste on a tissue with 2-3-миллиметровыми intervals between rectangulars. In such kind she can be easily curtailed(turned) by "accordion" and is saved(conserved) from repulping. To secure the scheme(plan) (map) against a rain, it is necessary to cover its(her) surface a colorless varnish.

Scale

The scale is an attitude(a relation) of lengths of a line on a map by the length corresponding(meeting) her downpours on district. Accuracy of the image of district on a map, completeness, a detail of a map depend on its(her) scale. Scales happen two kinds - numerical and linear.

The numerical scale is represented in the form of fraction which numerator is peer to unit, and a denominator - to the number showing, in how much time on a map the real length of a line is reduced.

For example: - 1/250000 1/50000.

The linear scale is represented by the direct line parted on centimeters or other peer parts. These parts are called as the basis of scale. To them there corresponds(meets) the certain(specific) number (inscribed series) meters or kilometers on district.

At decrease of scale many details to not load a map, do not represent: so, fine turns and flexures of roads, the rivers and brooks vanish. It should be considered during travel. The length of the sinuous river, winding soil road, a coasted edge the lakes measured on a map of fine scale, on district will appear much more because on a map all these details are absent, and the general(common), general direction of lines is given only.

Reading of a map

Conventional signs. It is the alphabet which knowledge is necessary for reading a map. Though labels of conventional signs in the certain(specific) measure depend on scale of a map, all of them can be divided into three groups: scale, vnemasshtabnye and explanatory. The first represent local subjects (normally contour) which "keep within" scale of a map: lakes, large cities and t. Item the Second - objects which cannot be expressed in the given scale. On such sign it is impossible to judge effective size of the settlement shown on a map, a well or the bridge. Digits concern to the third signs, an inscription and other labels.

With decrease of scale of a map scale conventional signs turn in vnemasshtabnye. At reading conventional signs it is necessary to know, that the map (plan) represents, as a rule, a years(summer) state of district. The most widespread and necessary conventional signs for the traveller are represented on fig. 24.

The image of landforms gorizontaljamiris. 23. The image of landforms horizontals.

Lay of land. It is represented on large-scale charts by means of horizontals as which the curve landlocked lines bridging on a map of a point of district are called, identical on height above a level of ocean.

The distance on height between two interfacing horizontals taken on one clivus, is called as height of section, and distance between horizontals under the plan - zalozheniem. The more abruptly the clivus, the less magnitude zalozhenija and on the contrary For definition of toughness of a clivus measure the shortest distance between the next horizontals and on a scale select corresponding(meeting) him zalozhenie against which read toughness of a clivus in degrees. To define(determine) a direction of a clivus on horizontals, on some of them perpendicular hyphens-скатоуказатели (bergshtrihi), "looking" by the free extremity(end) aside droppings (fig. 23) are put.

Some landforms are represented not by horizontals, and special conditional badges. So, breakages, gullens, shaft, pits show a line with the denticles turned aside of an abrupt slope. At using small-scale charts tourists can meet the image of a land forms in the way otmyvki (condensations of shadows) and hypsometric (« the above, the more darkly »).

Conditional znakiuslovnye signs
Conventional signs on maps

Declinations of a magnetic needle and azimutyris. 25 Declinations of a magnetic needle and azimuths.

On maps, where the hydronet is put(rendered) only (the rivers, brooks, lakes), the land forms is necessary "dorisovyvat" in mind(wit), leaning(basing) on density, a direction and tortuosity of water-currents and high-altitude marks.

On schemes(plans) and plans of mountain districts a land forms often represent only lines of watersheds (crests), marks of the basic tops, display of the rivers and ice cellars.

WAYS OF ORIENTATION

Orientation by means of a compass and maps

Orientation of a map. Serves for definition of the site. For this purpose a map put horizontally, put on it(her), a compass and rotate a map together with a compass so that the direction of a finger of a compass has coincided with a meridian. As the direction of a magnetic needle not precisely coincides with a direction on a geographical pole distinguish two meridians - true (geographical) and magnetic.

The difference between true and magnetic meridians is called as an angle of magnetic declination and can reach(achieve) magnitude at 10-20 and more and to have a different sign (fig. 25).

The account of magnetic declination. It is necessary for exact definition of the site. Local declination sometimes specify on a map. But it(he) can be defined(determined) also across North star or approximately, without taking into account local magnetic disturbances, under the applied scheme(plan) (fig. 26).

Schematic map magnetic slonenija in territory of the USSR
Fig. 26 Schematic map magnetic slonenija in territory of the USSR

If magnetic declination east on maps it subscribes with a sign plus (for example, +7). It means, that the true north is to the left from a direction of northern extremity(end) of a magnetic needle on magnitude in 7. Hence, it is necessary to turn a compass so that northern extremity(end) of a finger has coincided with the indicating on a limbus "7". Then, the axis of a limbus With - JU will pass(take place) through a true geographical meridian and a compass it will appear precisely focused in relation to the sides of horizon. In case of the western magnetic declination (a sign a minus) the true north lays to the right from northern extremity(end) of a finger also on magnitude of degrees of magnetic declination.

Orientation of a map on local predmetamris. 27. Orientation of a map in local subjects.

Definition of the site. After a map sorientirovana, it(her) "adhere" to. Districts by vising on appreciable subjects or by means of a compass. For this purpose learn(find out) on a compass magnetic azimuths on two reference points and, having made amendments on local magnetic declination, define(determine) geographical (true) azimuths of these reference points. Then from a point of the image of reference points on a map spend lines under a return azimuth (the return azimuth is peer observable ±180). Crossing of lines on a map also will define(determine) a point of your site (fig. 27).

Orientation with a map without a compass

Orientation with a map, but without a compass differs that. That a map focus on lines of district or on reference points.

Orientation on a line of district. In a hike it is applied at concurrence of a route to a rectilinear site of road, a glade, the river. In this case it is enough provizirovat a direction on one reference point. Crossing of this direction with the image of a line of district on a map also will give a point of standing (a method poluobratnoj a notch).

Punctual(Dot) reference point and method of a return notch. At a finding of the tourist near to a punctual(dot) reference point it is necessary to find this reference point on a map and on the second reference point to refer upper obrez maps on the north. If reference points are far a point of standing define(determine) a method of return vizirnoj notches. For this purpose sorientirovav a map, consistently vise and draw directions to two reference points. The point of crossing of directions will be a point of standing. For the control take the third direction.

Orientation by way BolotovaRis. 28. Orientation of Bolotov by the way.

Way of Bolotov. Apply at impossibility precisely sorientirovat a map. For this purpose from one point on a leaf of a transparent paper consistently vise and draw directions on three visible on district and opoznannyh on a map of a reference point. Then impose a transparent paper on a map so that the drawn directions on reference points have passed(have taken place) through their images on a map (fig. 28). At such position of a leaf the point on him (and a map) will be a point of a site of the tourist.

In practice travellers often resort also to the approached orientation, defining(determining) a point of standing on distance up to the nearest reference point available on a map.

Orientation without a map and a compass

Orientation without a map and a compass allows by means of heavenly bodies and some local subjects to define(determine) the sides of horizon.

Orientation on the sun and chasamris. 29. Orientation on the sun and hours (for a winter half of year)

Orientation on hours and the sun. For this purpose the hour hand is referred aside with the sun: at such position of hours the bisector between a hour hand and digit 2 on a dial (during from October till March-figure 1) will specify a provisional direction the south (fig. 29). Hours should go on local time. Accuracy of orientation in this way is insignificant in the summer. The mistake(error) can reach(achieve) magnitude 20-25.

Orientation across North star. The direction to North star is defined(determined) as follows. Through two marginal stars of "bucket" of the Big She-bear the straight line on which the fivefold distance between these stars is postponed is mentally spent. In the extremity(end) of the fifth piece there is North star precisely specifying (mistakes(errors) less than 2) on the north (fig. 30).

Orientation on the moon. For approximate orientation it is useful to know, that in the summer in the first quarter the moon at 20 o'clock is in the south, in 2 one o'clock in the morning - in the West, in last quarter in 2 one o'clock in the morning - in the east, in eight mornings - in the south. At a full moon at the night of the side of horizon define(determine) the same as on the sun and hours, and the moon is accepted to the sun.

Orientation on Polar zvezderis. 30. Orientation across North star.

Orientation in local subjects

Some local subjects and attributes also can serve the elementary, though also not so exact "compass" for the traveller (fig. 31).

It is known, for example, that mosses and lichens cover northern side of trees and stones, resin acts on a Sonth half of trunk of a coniferous tree more, ants suit the dwellings to the south from the nearest trees or scrubs and do(make) a Sonth slope of an ant hill by more flat, than northern, the altar at orthodox churches is in the east n t. Item

Definition of the sides gorizontaris. 31. Definition of the sides of horizon on an ant hill; on a melting of a snow in a gullen; on the small cavity at a tree; on the snow which has stuck to a stone.

It is not recommended to be guided on such; incorrect, though also to all known attributes, as density and splendour of a crone from this or that side at forest of a tree separately costing(standing) or being a ground, on year rings of a gain of wood on stumps of the cut trees. Both density of a crone and width of year rings depend on a lot of factors among which illuminating intensity the sun can be not the main thing.

Rather cautiously it is necessary to resort to orientation on quarter columns in a forest. Though it is considered, that the rib between two next sides of a column with the least digits specifies the north (fig. 32), it is necessary to remember, that glades in data to a forest metut to be cut through not on meridians and parallels, and on a line of a land forms or in parallel roads and borders ugody.

Definition of the sides gorizontaris. 32. Definition of the sides of horizon on a quarter column on a wood glade.

Orientation on tourist marks

Tourist marks-it(-this;-thus) system of special symbols which are put(rendered) on local subjects for a marking of tourist routes.

Some recommendatory, forbidding and limiting signs tourist markirovkiris. 33. Some recommendatory, forbidding and limiting signs on tourist marks: 1 - place of interest; 2 - a monument or a memorable place; 3 - ford; 4 - a bus stopping; 5 - a place for delution of a fire; 6 - the halt is forbidden; 7 - a place, hazardous to bathing; 8 - to tamper with it is forbidden

Marks includes various kinds of the brands, referring fingers, indexes and other signs which in the symbols, the form, color and an alphanumeric code carry the information necessary for the tourist and help(assist) to be guided by districts.

The main element of marks - the routing brand - has the form of a rectangular (the basic format - 180-240 mm) on which white floor(field) the color strip or the square put on an angle is put(rendered). Mark with a red strip designates lasting many days kategorijnyj a route, with dark blue - on a badge « the Tourist of the USSR », with green - 3-4-дневный, with yellow - 1-2-дневный (with lodgings for the night). Brands with color squares designate various routes for hikes without lodgings for the night.

Simplified tourist markirovkaris. 34. The simplified tourist marks: 1 - a survey point; 2 - a monument; 3 - a drinking water; 4 - a shelter, a place for a camp; 5 - hazard; 6 - the extremity(end) of a way

Being guided under brands, tourists can pass(take place) a route without a map, a compass and descriptions: index, warning, ordering and prohibiting signs will prompt, where there are objects for survey, bivachnye platforms, the shelters, safeguarded natural places of interest, places for bathing, what distance up to this or that item(point), what kinds of activity of tourists are resolved, what hazards are expected ahead and t. The item Some of these uniform signs are resulted(brought) on fig. 33. As marks is in full carried out, as a rule, only on scheduled routes, on amateur travel I-III of categories of complexity for orientation signs on the simplified marks (fig. 34) are used also.

ESTIMATION OF DISTANCES AND TIME

Definition of distance by steps

For definition of distance on the steps it is necessary to know their length. The average length of pair of steps can be conditionally accepted peer 1,5м. The bill of steps can be led three, counting three alternately under the right and left leg(foot). If the distance is measured by run the bill is led on the five of steps. At measurement of greater(big) distances each one hundred counted pairs or three of steps mark(celebrate) record, a bending of fingers or in another way. It is more convenient to use the special device-pedometer.

Definition of distance by construction of similar triangles

At definition of distance up to inaccessible subjects use the various receptions bound to construction of similar triangles.

Definition of distance by means of a match. A match - the elementary range finder. Preliminary on her it is necessary to put(render) ink or a pencil two-millimetric divisions. It is necessary to know also provisional height of a subject up to which the distance is defined(determined). So, body height of the person in meters is peer 1,7, a wheel of a bicycle the horseman-2,2, a cable column-6, the one-storeyed house without a roof - 2,5-4 meters has height 0,75.

Let's admit(allow), it is necessary to define(determine) distance up to a cable column. We refer on it(him) a match on the extended arm(hand) (fig. 35) which length at the adult person is peer approximately 60 see On a match the image of a column 4 millimeters have borrowed(occupied) two divisions, that is. On these data it is easy to make such proportion:

Length of an arm(a hand) / distance up to a column = a piece of a match / height of a column = 0,60/Х = 0,004 / 6,0; Х=0,60*6,0/0,004=900

Definition of distance by means of spichkiris. 35. Definition of distance by means of a match

Thus, up to a column of 900 meters.

Hiking standards. For measurements on a route by means of construction of similar triangles it is useful for tourists to know some other hiking standards.

Length of "quarter", that is distance between dontsami placed the big finger and a little finger, 18-22 see

Length of an index finger from the basis of the big finger of 11-13 sm, from the basis of an average - 7-8 see

The greatest distance between the extremities(ends) of the big and index fingers of 16-18 sm, between the extremities(ends) of index and average fingers - 8-10 see

Distance between the extremities(ends) of the arms(hand) of the person stretched horizontally to normally peerly its(his) body height.

Distance from eyes up to the lifted big finger of the extended arm(hand) 60-70 see

Width of an index finger nearby 2 see width of its(his) fingernail 1 see

Width of four fingers of a palm 7-8 see

Each tourist defines(determines) concrete length of these and other standards independently and writes down in the hiking notebook.

Estimation of distance an eye estimation and on audibility of sounds

The table of distance of the beginning of visibility of subjects. For glazomernoj estimations of distance it is possible to use the following table.
Naimenojaansh subjects      Distance
Day time time:
Human settlements      10-12 km
Greater(Big) structures      8 km
Separate small houses      5 km
Windows in houses (without reliure)      4 km
Pipes on roofs      3 km
Separate trees      2 km
People (in the form of points)      1,5-2 km
Movements of legs(foots), arms(hand) of the person      700 m
Reliures of window frames      500 m
Head of the person      400 m
Color and parts of clothes      250-300 m
Leaves on trees      200 m
Features, brushes of arms(hand)      100 m
Eyes (in the form of points)      60-70 m
Night time:
Burning fire      6-8 km
Light of a pocket lantern      1,5-2 km
Burning match      1-1,5 km
Fire of a cigarette      400-500 m

Features of vision on a route of various subjects. Depend on many factors, and first of all from distance up to subjects. The further the subject is had, the he looks(appears) below and already, than actually. Therefore large subjects seem more close, than fine. Laying subjects (for example, the tumbled down tree) seem more longly, than costing(standing) the same size.

The distance on water, in gorge, on a snow seems more shortly real. The width of the river from a flat shore is represented to greater, than at observation from an abrupt shore. At a view from above upwards, from bottom of mountain on its(her) top the slope seems to less abrupt, and subjects on mountain are closer, than at observation from top to down, from mountain. At night all light sources and brightly shined(covered) subjects are represented much more close their real position. In the afternoon the subjects light or colored in bright colors seem more close, than subjects dark or poorly contrasting with a natural background.

Amendments on psychological mistakes(errors). At orientation and an estimation of distance on a route it is necessary to remember, that toughness of the naked(exposed) slopes seems normally to greater, than zalesennyh; the distance up to a distant forest, the river, mountain - is shorter real; equal road - less long, than the same way on impassability. The kilometers which have been passed(which have been taken place) under a serious backpack, during a bad weather or in conditions of bad visibility "are especially extended".

The table of audibility of various sounds. In the table range of the beginning of audibility of sounds in the open district in conditions of silence is specified and at normal air moisture.
Sources of a sound      Average range of the beginning of audibility
Hum of a going train      5-10 km
Shooting from a fowling piece      2 4 km
Sharp hum of the motor of a tractor, the tractor, hooters of a motor vehicle      2 3 km
Bark of dogs, rzhane horses      1-2 km
Movement of motor vehicles on highway      1 2 km
Loud cry (illegibly)      1-1,5 km
Movement of motor vehicles on soil road      0,5-1 km
Fall, crash of the cut down tree      800 m
Knock of an axe, squeal of a saw, zvjakane kettles      300-500 m
Conversation of people (illegibly)      200 m
Quiet speech, tussis      50-100 m

Estimation of time

To define(determine) time it is possible on the sun (sundial), to the moon, stars and the separate natural phenomena having a daily rhythm of development. Skill to define(determine) time without hours important for tourists is not so much on an event of loss or breakage of the last, how much for development of observation and exercise of various kinds of observation above the nature...

For a rough estimation of time in clear summer days it is possible to use flowers. Below the table with the indicating of hours in which the some people most often meeting in an average strip of the country flowers reveal and closed is resulted(brought).
Names of plants      Flowers reveal (hours)      Flowers (hours) are closed
Kozloborodnik meadow      4-5      10-11
Chicory      5-6      15-19
Dogrose field      5-6      20-21
Dandelion      6-7      15-18
Sonchus field      7-8      11-12
Flax field      7-8      17-18
JAstrebinka umbellate      7-8      18-19
Kuvshinka white      8-9      19-20
Violet three-coloured      8-9      16-17
Clove field      10-11      14-15
Calendula field      10-11      16-17
Codling      10-11      18-19
Tussilago farfara      10-11      18-19
Tobacco odorous      20-21     
Smolevka      21-22     
Violet night      21-22     

Approximately to define(determine) time at years(summer) morning o'clock it is possible also on awakening birds and their first songs.
The name of birds      Time of the first songs (hours)
Zjablik      2-2.30
Robin      3-4
Has sung      3.30-4
Ouzel      4-4.30
Warbler      4-5
Titmouse      5-6
Sparrow      6-7

MOVEMENT ON THE AZIMUTH

Azimuth

What is the azimuth? It is the angle counted on a course of movement of a hour hand from a direction on the north up to a direction on the given subject (reference point). The azimuth is measured in degrees from 0 up to 360. If the geographical meridian is accepted to an initial direction, the azimuth is called true; if the magnetic meridian is accepted to an initial direction, the azimuth is called magnetic.

Movement on an azimuth. Consists in definition on district of the necessary direction on the set azimuth and a withstanding of this direction in a way up to a yield(an exit) to the planned item(point). In a hike to movement on an azimuth normally resort on the closed district or in impassability for what in advance on a map define(determine) magnetic azimuths and distance up to reference points.

Movement with utilization of intermediate reference points

At movement on an azimuth practical accuracy of a yield(an exit) on a reference point makes normally up to one tenth the passed(taken place) route. Therefore always it is desirable to plan intermediate reference points on a route. For this purpose before movement establish(install) vizirnoe the fitting of a compass on the necessary direction and focus a compass. Then vise in the necessary direction (or near to it(him)) any strongly pronounced and not so remote reference point to which move. Having reached(achieved) a reference point, operation repeat again. At definition of a direction it is necessary to watch(keep up), that northern extremity(end) of a finger of a compass coincided with a mark of the north on its(his) limbus.

At movement on an azimuth on a way of tourists there can be appreciable obstacles on width, for example lake or a rocky site. For a strict withstanding of the general(common) direction to bypass them it is desirable on a broken straight line with the least quantity(amount) of "knees". At detour it is necessary to write down precisely magnitudes of intermediate azimuths and the distances which have been passed(which have been taken place) on them.

To not get off from a correct direction, it is useful to draw during movement on a leaf(sheet) of a notebook (on a tablet), a way of detour with angles and lengths of "knees".

Movement without precise reference points

At absence of reference points. In a floor(field), tundra, steppe where there are no reference points, or at bad visibility it is possible to move a method stvora. The tourist supervising movement monitors a direction, being in the extremity(end) of group: he sees all chain of tourists, can compare with its(her) direction to the set azimuth and - was well-timed to warn about deviations(rejections).

At presence of the sun (the moon, stars) it is possible to move on an azimuth having measured an angle of a direction in relation to these heavenly bodies. In each half an hour their position on a palate should be specified by means of a compass. From receptions of such orientation orientation on the shadow is most widespread.

In windy weather it is useful to remember a direction of a wind or movement of clouds concerning the sides of horizon.

On wide open-spaces it is possible to focus movement on snow zastrugam in the winter. In dense zalesennoj the district for a withstanding of a direction is recommended to bypass serially meeting obstacles - trees, scrubs, blockages - that with left, from the right side.

Sometimes at absence of intermediate reference points it is useful to do(make) a notorious deviation(rejection) in the certain(specific) side from the set azimuth. Having passed(having taken place) calculated at a walk or on time of movement distance up to a final reference point, tourists abruptly fold aside and search in a new direction (one, instead of in two opposite as would be if they moved directly on the set azimuth) for a required point on district.

At greater(big) distances it is necessary to plan restrictive (side) reference points, and a final reference point to choose whenever possible linear and such that he has been developed(unwrapped) wide front to a direction of movement of tourists.

At loss of orientation. On a light(mild) site it is possible to continue advance by all group up to a yield(an exit) on a known place. On a complex(difficult) piece of a route so to do(make) it is impossible: here it is better to waste time on careful investigation, than to go blindfold.

If tourists have lost the way also investigation does not allow hope to orient correctly at absence of roads they should leave on "water" and to go along it(her) downstream: the brook will lead to small river, that is to the big river on which tourists necessarily, will meet the person, housing, will receive the necessary help. On a way it is necessary to leave on visible places tours with notes is will facilitate and will accelerate search gone.